l^/\  190 


L  88 


tntljeCitpofllrtogork 

COLLEGE  OF 

PHYSICLANS  AND  SURGEONS 

LIBRARY 


Gift  of 
Dr.  0.  S.  Strong 


^ 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2010  with  funding  from 

Open  Knowledge  Commons 


http://www.archive.org/details/buildinghumanintOOIora 


Building 
Human  Intelligence 


"Only  that  may  enter  our  mind  which  has 
made  its  way  through  the  senses." 

St.  Thomas  Aquinas 


BY 

DR,  ARNOLD    LORAND 

Carlsbad,  Czecho-Slovakia. 

Author  of  "Old  Age  Deferred"  and  "Health  and  Longevity  Through 
Rational  Diet." 


PHILADELPHIA 
F.  A.  DAVIS  COMPANY,  Publishers 
1922 


COPYRIGHT,  1917 

BY 
F.  A.  DAVIS  COMPANY 

Copyright,  Great  Britain.     All  Rights  Reservod 


Philadelphia.  Pa.,  U.  S.  A. 

Press  of  F.  A.  Davis  Company 

1914-16  Cherry  Street 


PREFACE. 


It  may  seem  rather  daring  at  first  blush  to  write  a  book  on 
such  a  topic.  If,  however,  human  intelligence,  as  nobody  can 
deny,  depends  on  the  normal  function  of  the  brain,  there  can  be 
no  reason  why  the  latter  could  not  just  as  well  be  influenced  by 
a  number  of  hygienic  and  therapeutic  means,  as,  for  instance, 
the  functions  of  the  heart  or  of  the  kidney.  In  continuation  of 
my  books  on  a  hygienic  mode  of  living  and  correct  feeding,  I 
now  have  made  an  attempt  to  suggest  a  number  of  means  for 
the  health  of  the  mind  based  upon  a  hygienic-physiologic  founda- 
tion, as  even  very  distinguished  scholars  sin  against  the  simplest 
requirements  of  hygiene  and  carry  on  such  a  destructive  wasting 
of  their  mental  faculties  that  they  become  used  up  prematurely. 
Being  engaged  with  many  complex  questions,  these  gentlemen 
sin  against  a  sensible  mode  oi  living,  and  the  consequence  is  a 
premature  breakdown.  It  is,  therefore,  no  wonder  that  so  many 
great  scholars  and  naturalists  manifest  signs  of  arteriosclerosis 
of  the  blood-vessels  of  the  brain  too  soon,  and  become  mentally 
diseased.  Still  worse  is  it  that,  through  an  entirely  wrong  and 
unhygienic  way  of  education  and  instruction,  which  violates  the 
laws  of  the  most  elementary  hygiene  and  reason,  a  destruction 
of  the  mental  faculties  of  children  is  carried  on  under  the  pro- 
tection and  sanction  of  the  State  authorities.  Everything  is 
taught  in  our  school  but  plain  human  common  sense !  By  over- 
taxing the  delicate  organism  of  the  children  with  dry,  scholastic 
knowledge,  without  taking  into  consideration  practical  demon- 
stration and  the  exercising  of  the  senses,  the  foundation  is  often 
laid  for  serious  nervous  diseases;  and,  in  cases  where  there  is 
an  hereditary  disposition,  even  to  mental  diseases.  Such  dis- 
eases may  develop  slowly  without  being  recognized,  and  medical 

(iii) 


iv  Preface. 

aid  is  principally  sought  when  it  is  too  late:  insanity  has 
broken  out  or  violent  deeds,  murder,  etc.,  have  been  committed. 
Indeed,  there  is  no  other  branch  of  medicine  in  which  the  con- 
dition of  prophylaxis  is  in  such  a  deficient  state.  The  first  signs 
of  insanity  are  generally  ignored  or  mistaken,  and,  therefore,  it 
is  no  wonder  that  the  therapeutics  of  mental  diseases,  partic- 
ularly of  the  sequel  disease  of  syphilis — progressive  paralysis^ 
is  so  little  advanced,  since  help  is  sought  only  when  irreparable 
injuries  have  already  taken  place.  And  still  this  disease,  as  well 
as  many  other  serious  mental  and  nervous  diseases,  in  all  prob- 
ability, could  be  prevented  and  perhaps  healed  by  rational  care 
of  the  nervous  system,  and  by  maintaining  physical  and  mental 
health ;  and  by  attending  to  it  very  early  many  a  case  of  neuras- 
thenia could  be  improved,  and  some,  perhaps,  cured. 

While  it  is  true  that  physical  health  is  the  best  guarantee 
for  a  healthy  mental  condition,  which  is  also  expressed  in  the 
saying  of  the  Romans,  "Mens  sana  in  corpore  sano,"^  it  is,  never- 
theless, shown  that  a  surprisingly  large  number  of  great  men, 
particularly  of  the  great  thinkers  and  scholars  such  as  Kant, 
Helmholtz,  Newton,  Watt,  and  others,  have  been  sickly  chil- 
dren, and  often  remained  weak  their  whole  lives  long ;  yet  this  in 
no  way  affected  either  their  mental  faculties  or  their  longevity. 
To  illustrate  some  of  my  statements  I  found  it  necessary  to 
delve  somewhat  more  into  the  modes  of  life  and  habits  of  some 
of  the  great  men.  The  necessary  data  were  found  in  a  number 
of  treatises  by  contemporaries  of  these  mental  heroes,  as  well  as 
in  the  writings  of  Moebius  and  W.  Oswald.  I  have  also  used  a 
number  of  encyclopedias,  which  were  placed  at  my  disposal  in 
the  British  Museum,  in  London,  and  in  the  Royal  Libraries,  at 
The  Hague,  in  Holland,  particularly  the  very  correct  and  thor- 
ough biographies  found  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica.  and 
Hispano  Americana. 

The  treatment  of  such  a  new  subject  as  this,  in  regard  to 
which  nothing  exists  in  the  whole  of  literature,  presents  indeed 


1  A  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body. 


Preface.  v 

many  difficulties.  This  is  particularly  the  case  concerning  a  sub- 
ject which  lies  somewhat  out  of  the  usual  sphere  of  activity  of 
a  physician  in  my  position,  and,  therefore,  a  severe  critic  may 
have  ample  opportunity  to  ruffle  my  feathers.  If  he  will  admit, 
however,  in  his  just  criticism,  that  there  is  at  least  a  single  good 
thought  in  this  work  which  may  further  the  common  welfare,  I 
shall  consider  the  goal  for  which  I  have  been  striving  in  the 
preparation  of  this  work  as  having  been  attained. 

LORAND. 


CONTENTS. 


I.  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  VARIOUS  FACTORS 
UPON  THE  FACULTY  OF  THINKING. 

CHAPTER   I.  „,^^ 

PAGE 

Blood  Circulatory  Conditions  in  the  Brain,  and  Their  Influence 
UPON  THE  Faculty  of  Thinking 1 


CHAPTER   II. 

The   Influence   of   the   Glands   of    Internal    Secretion    upon    the 
Faculty  of  Thinking  and  the  Origin  of  Mental  Disorders. 16 

CHAPTER   III. 

The  Influence  of  the  Nasal  Chambers  upon  the  Circulatory  Con- 
ditions IN  the  Brain  and  the  Ability  of  Thinking 39 

CHAPTER   IV. 
The  Influence  of  Metabolism  upon  the  Faculty  of  Thinking 48 

CHAPTER  V. 

The    Influence    of    Lime    and    Phosphorus    Metabolism    upon    the 
Faculty  of  Thinking  and  the  Origin  of  Mental  Diseases 52 

CHAPTER  VI. 
The  Influence  of  Nourishment  upon  the  Intelligence 57 

CHAPTER   VII. 

Influence  of  Climate,  Seasons  of  the  Year  and  Weather  upon  the 
Ability  to  Think  and  Mental  Activity 62 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Influence  of  Heredity  upon  the  Ability  of  Thinking 67 

CHAPTER   IX. 

The  Influence  of  Age  upon  the  Intelligence 74 

(vii) 


viii  Contents. 


II.  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  SEXUAL  IMPULSE 
AND  THE  SEXUAL  DIFFERENCE  UPON 
THE  INTELLIGENCE. 

CHAPTER   X. 

PAGE 

The    Influence    of    Sexual    Impulse,    the    Excess    of    It    and    Its 
Absence,  upon  the  Intelligence 84 

CHAPTER   XL 
The  Influence  of  Suppressed  Sexual  Impulse  and  Onanism 92 

CHAPTER   XII. 

The  Influence  of  Sexual  Difference  on  the  Faculty  of  Thinking 
— The  Intelligence  of  a  Man  and  That  of  a  Woman 97 


III.  HARMFUL  INFLUENCES  UPON  THE  THINK- 
ING ABILITY  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT  AC- 
CORDING   TO    THE    NEWER    PRINCIPLES. 

CHAPTER   XIII. 
Causes  of  Insanity  and  Their  Pre\tntion 105 

CHAPTER   XIV. 
The  Influence  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Mental  Faculties 115 

CHAPTER   XV. 

Influence  of  Sleepiness  and  Sleeplessness  and  Its  Rational  Treat- 
ment      125 

CHAPTER   XVI. 

The  Influence  of  Migraine  and  Headaches   in   General   upon   the 
Faculty  of  Thinking  and  Their  Rational  Treatment 132 

CHAPTER   XVII. 

Consequences  of  Mental  Overstrain  and  Fatigue,  Their  Pre\'ention 
and  Treatment 140 

CHAPTER   XVIII. 

Influence  of  the  Nervous  Sequel  Diseases  of  Syphilis — Pkogressi\'e 
Paralysis,  Its  Prevention  and  Treatment 146 


Contents.  Ix 

CHAPTER   XIX. 
The  Nature  and  Origin  of  Paralytic  Dementia 156 

CHAPTER   XX. 

The  Influence  of  Nervousness,  Neurasthenia  and  Hysteria,  and 
THE  Treatment  of  This  Condition  According  to  the  Newer 
Principles    161 

CHAPTER   XXI. 
The  Influence  of  the  Diseases  of  the  Thyroid  Gland 170 

CHAPTER   XXII. 

Influence  of  Epilepsy  and  Its  Treatment  According  to  Modern 
Principles    186 

IV.    INCREASE    OF   THINKING   ABILITY   BY 
HYGIENIC    AND    THERAPEUTIC    MEANS. 

CHAPTER   XXIII. 
Promotion  of  Mental  Faculties  by  Hygienic  Means 190 

CHAPTER   XXIV. 
Hygienic  Means  to  Improve  the  Blood-circulation  in  the  Brain 202 

CHAPTER   XXV. 

The  Importance  of  Taking  Care  of  the  Nose  and  About  Occasional 
Snuffing 208 

CHAPTER   XXVI. 

The  Favorable  Influence  of  a  Sunny,  High  Altitude  upon  the 
Intelligence   212 

CHAPTER   XXVII. 

Hints  in  Regard  to  the  Best  Possible  Utilization  of  Sunlight,  and 
How  TO  Carry  Out  Sun-baths 221 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
Furthering  of  Mental  Faculties  by  Means  of  Certain  Drugs 226 

CHAPTER   XXIX. 

Improvement  of  Mental  Faculties  by  the  Use  of  Extracts  from 
Animal  Organs    233 


X  Contents. 


V.  THE  POWER  OF  THINKING,  AND  RATIONAL 
THINKING— THEIR  DEVELOPMENT,  PARTIC- 
ULARLY   IN    PRACTISING    THE    SENSES. 

CHAPTER   XXX.  p^^^ 

The  Seat  of  Thinking  Power  and  the  Process  of  Thinking 242 


CHAPTER   XXXI. 
Rational  Thinking 256 

CHAPTER   XXXII. 
External  and  Internal  Signs  of  High  and  Low  Intelligence........  265 

CHAPTER  XXXIII. 
The  Importance  of  Exercising  the  Senses 274 

CHAPTER   XXXIV. 

The  Advantage  of  Extensi\'e  Travelling  as  Practical  Exercises  for 
the  Senses  281 


VI.    MEMORY    AND    ITS    SYSTEMATIC 
DEVELOPMENT. 

CHAPTER  XXXV. 

The  Foundation  of  Memory  and  Its  Dependence  upon  the  Condi- 
tions OF  Blood-circulation  in  the  Brain-cortex 286 

CHAPTER   XXXVI. 
Conditions  Required  for  a  Good  Memory 294 

CHAPTER  XXXVII. 
Causes  of  Weak  Memory  and  Its  Treatment 307 

CHAPTER   XXXVIII. 
Some  Hints  to  Facilitate  Memory 314 

CHAPTER   XXXIX. 
The  Art  of  Forgetting  and  Treatment  of  Bad  Habits 318 


Contents.  xi 

VII.    RATIONAL   MENTAL   WORK. 

CHAPTER  XL.  „,^^ 

PAGE 

Rational  Learning  and  Studying 324 

CHAPTER  XLI. 

The   Influence  of  Age  upon   the  Ability   to  Learn — Learning  as 
Done  by  Children  and  by  the  Old 331 

CHAPTER   XLII. 
Rational  Method  of  Lecturing  and  Instructing 335 

CHAPTER   XLIII. 

A  Few  Words  About  Rational  Writing  of  Textbooks  and  Scientific 
Treatises    344 

CHAPTER   XLIV. 
The  Rational  Studying  of  Foreign  Languages 347 

CHAPTER   XLV. 
Hints  About  Composition  of  the  Food  in  Strenuous  Mental  Work..  356 

CHAPTER  XLVI. 
Rational  Food  for  Musicians 361 

VIII.    RATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT    OF    IN- 
TELLIGENCE   IN    CHILDREN. 

CHAPTER  XLVII. 

Hints  About  Mental  Education  of  Children — The  Harm  of  Pun- 
ishment      364 

CHAPTER  XLVIII. 
Bad  and  Dull  Pupils — Causes  of  Dullness  and  Its  Treatment.....  374 

CHAPTER   XLIX. 

Diligence,   Laziness,    and   Absent-mindedness — Treatment   of   Lazi- 
ness AND  Absent-mindedness 381 

CHAPTER   L. 
Hints  in  Regard  to  the  Rational  Feeding  of  School-children 389 


xii  Contents. 

CHAPTER   LI. 

PAGE 

Great  Men  Who  Were  Sickly  Children — Longevity  of  Great  Men..  393 

CHAPTER   LH. 

Great  Men  Who  Were  Eager  Readers  in  Childhood — The  Advan- 
tage OF  Much  Reading,  and  of  Diligent  Private  Studying 398 

CHAPTER  LHL 
Great  Men  Who  Were  Bad  Pupils 406 


IX.  HYGIENIC  PRINCIPLES  FOR  A  REFORM 
OF  THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM,  PARTIC- 
ULARLY IN  THE  MIDDLE  SCHOOLS  (HIGH 
SCHOOLS). 

CHAPTER  LIV. 

Reform  of  the  High-school  Curriculum  on  Hygienic,  Physiological 
Principles    412 

CHAPTER   LV. 

The  Necessity  of  an  Expert  Examination  of  the  Organs  of  Sense 
AND  the  Intelligence  of  Pupils  Before  Entering  the  Gymnasium 
(High  School)    417 

CHAPTER   LVI. 
The  Obligatory  Training  in  Art  Needlework,  and  Manual  Training  422 

CHAPTER  LVII. 
The  Necessity  of  Outdoor  Schools 427 

CHAPTER  LVIIL 

Injury  Caused  by  Examinations  from  the  Hygienic  Standpoint, 
Particularly  of  the  Examination  for  Graduation 429 

CHAPTER   LIX. 

The  Necessity  of  Educating  Ingenious  Children  of  the  Poor  at  the 
State's  Expense  • 434 

CHAPTER   LX. 

Biographies  of  Great  Men  as  an  Obligatory  Subject  of  Instruction 
IN  Our  Schools 439 

Index   445 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  VARIOUS  FACTORS  UPON 
THE  FACULTY  OF  THINKING. 


CHAPTER    L 

Blood  Circulatory  Conditions  in  the  Brain,  and  Their 
Influence  upon  the  Faculty  of  Thinking. 

It  is  a  peculiar  fact  that  frequently  in  various  kinds  of 
mental  diseases,  as  for  instance  in  melancholia,  a  striking  im- 
provement of  the  condition,  sometimes  even  a  cure,  may  occur 
when  the  patient  becomes  affected  with  an  attack  of  fever.  A 
similar  fact  may  frequently  be  observed  after  an  artificially 
produced  fever, — for  instance,  after  a  tuberculin  injection. 

We  must,  therefore,  assume  that  the  brain-cortex,  the 
seat  of  thinking- faculty,  may  be  influenced  by  fever.  What 
characterizes  fever  is  an  elevation  of  the  blood  circulation,  an 
augmentation  and  acceleration  of  it;  high  temperature  and  a 
quickened  pulse  are  its  most  important  distinguishing  features. 

A  greater  flushing  of  the  tissues  with  blood  in  fever  may 
be  considered  a  useful  arrangement  of  Nature  to  avert  the  inva- 
sion of  the  tissues  by  minute  organisms  or  any  other  harmful 
substances.^  When,  therefore,  in  patients  affected  with  mental 
diseases,  associated  with  depressive  symptoms,  an  improvement 
of  the  thinking  power  is  observed,  this  can  be  very  well  attrib- 
uted tO'  a  better  flushing  of  the  brain-cortex  with  blood,  to  an 
augmented  blood-supply. 

In  subjects  with  low  mentality  a  high  fever  may  some- 
times produce  very  beneficial  results  in  improving  their  mental 
development.  Such  a  case  is  mentioned  by  Tissot.  A  very 
stupid  young  man,  who  could  not  be  made  to  comprehend  even 


1  Lorand,  Clinical  Observations  on  the  Origin  of  Fever,  Lancet,  Novem- 
ber, 1907,  und  das  Altern  und  seine  Behandlung,  IV  Aufl.,  Seite  16. 

(1) 


Human  Intelligence. 


the  relation  of  an  adjective  to  the  noun,  happened  to  become 
affected  with  a  malignant  fever  and  was,  a  few  days  later,  able 
to  speak  very  good  Latin  without  applying  too  much  thought 
to  it,  and  in  conversation  he  developed  ideas,  such  as  never 
came  to  him  before.^ 

Thus  in  exciting  conditions  during  delirium  and  mania,  in 
which  a  flooding  of  the  brain-cortex  with  blood  may  be 
assumed,  sometimes  an  extraordinary  increase  of  mental  abil- 
ity may  ensue.  Plato,  in  this  respect  says,  in  his  "Phaedra," 
that  delirium  is  actually  not  a  bad  thing  at  all,  but  rather  a 
blessing  sent  by  the  gods. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  interpreters  of  the  divine  ora- 
cles (soothsayers)  of  Delphi  and  Dodona  gave  the  greatest 
services  to  the  inhabitants  of  Greece  during  a  state  of  delirium, 
whereas  in  a  normal  state  they  were  of  very  little  use  to  them. 

It  may  sometimes  be  observed  that  men  of  very  moderate 
mental  faculties  exhibit  an  enormous  increase  of  some  facul- 
ties when  they  become  demented.  In  conditions  of  maniacal 
exaltation  there  can  even  be  revealed  the  ability  of  a  genius. 
Marce^  tells  about  a  case  of  a  young  woman  of  a  very  mod- 
erate intellect  who,  during  an  attack  of  mania,  wrote  letters  to 
her  husband,  which  for  eloquence  and  emotional  style  could 
very  well  be  set  side  by  side  with  the  "Nouvelle  Heloise"  of 
Rousseau.  The  remarkable  thing  was,  that  when  the  patient 
quieted  down  and  the  attack  was  over  the  letters  became  of 
the  usual  form,  and  in  comparison  with  those  written  during 
the  attack  were  as  if  written  by  an  entirely  different  person. 
Morel*  observed  in  some  hysterical  and  epileptical  patients  dur- 
ing their  state  of  exaltation  an  enormous  activity  of  intelli- 
gence. Thus  one  of  his  patients,  a  young  man,  composed  in 
one  night  a  piece  of  music,  and  at  another  time  a  drama,  which 
were  of  particular  beauty.     A  young  hysterical  woman  could 


2  Tissot,  Des  nerfs  et  leurs  maladies,  p.  133. 

3  Marce,  nach  Lombroso,  L'homme  de  genie.     Paris,  1909,  S.  247. 

4  Morel,  Traite  des  maladies  mentales,  1858. 


Influence  of  Blood  Circulation  in  the  Brain.  3 

recite  verbatim  during  the  period  of  exaltation  many  sermons 
to  which  she  had  Hstened,  but  when  she  became  entirely  qui- 
escent it  was  impossible  for  her  to  repeat  even  a  few  lines, 

E.  Frank^  observed  a  young  girl  of  fourteen  years,  who 
was  afflicted  with  religious  mania;  she  used  to  listen  for  some 
time  to  missionary  sermons,  and  was  able  to  talk  about  theo- 
logical subjects  as  if  she  had  studied  theology;  she  was  also 
able  to  disprove,  in  an  intelligent  manner,  all  the  opposing 
arguments. 

It  is  not  rarely  reported  that  artists,  mentally  abnormal, 
have  created  masterpieces  which  have  gained  world-wide  rec- 
ognition while  they  were  in  a  state  of  exaltation.  As  a  very 
instructive  example  in  that  respect  may  be  considered  the  Greek 
Theotocopoulos,  who  lived  for  a  long  time  in  Spain  and  Italy, 
and  who  became  famous  under  the  name  of  Greeko  (the  Greek). 
(In  the  galleries  of  Prado  and  Madrid  and  other  places  his  very 
celebrated  masterpieces  may  be  seen.) 

I  have  in  my  possession  an  exceedingly  wonderful  pen  draw- 
ing by  an  insane  man  whom  I  observed  in  the  insane  asylum 
of  Nizza.  His  mind  was  so  weak  that  I  could  keep  up  no 
conversation  whatever  with  him.  When,  however,  he  became 
excited  he  was  able  to  make  the  most  beautiful  drawings,  for 
example,  ideally  beautiful  heads  of  children  with  curly  hair. 

That  during  the  state  of  exaltation  the  entirely  irrespon- 
sible insane  may  become  very  intelligent  was  also  frequently 
observed  by  Leuret.  He  inferred  a  particularly  high  grade  of 
intelligence  in  some  of  his  patients,  because  he  was  able  to 
observe  them  only  during  the  attack  of  mania,  but  several  who 
had  distinguished  themselves  by  ingenious  ideas  during  an 
attack  proved,  after  having  been  cured,  to  be  entirely  ordinary 
kind  of  men,  and  in  regard  to  intellect  and  mentality  stood  far 
below  the  level  shown  during  the  attack. 

A  very  instructive  case  is  the  one  reported  by  Esquirol  of 


^  E.  Frank,  Pathologic  interne  (after  Lombroso). 


Human  Intelligence. 


a  demented  general.  In  the  state  of  exaltation  he  discovered 
a  new  cannon  which  was  afterward  adopted  by  the  army  au- 
thorities. During  his  hours  of  quiescence,  however,  he  dropped 
from  his  high  intellectual  state,  and  only  wrote  comedies  and 
vaudevilles  which  were  entirely  disconnected. 

Paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  there  are  men  who  become 
ingenious  only  when  they  lose  the  very  low  grade  of  intellect 
which  they  ordinarily  may  have.  This  is  shown  by  the  exam- 
ple of  a  woman  observed  by  Winslow  :^  when  confined  to  the 
asylum  she  was  a  poetess,  but  when  she  was  discharged  as 
cured,  she  became  a  very  prosaic  housekeeper.  The  same 
author  also  observed  a  man  who  was  so  stupid  that  he  could 
not  manage  simple  addition  examples,  but  during  his  attacks 
of  mania  he  became  a  mathematician  of  extraordinary  ability. 

The  state  of  inspiration  in  which,  according  to  the  usual 
assumption,  artists  and  poets  are  able  to  do  their  best  work, 
is  also  really  only  a  condition  of  exaltation  which  comes  very 
near  to  a  mild  fever.  During  fever,  therefore,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  overabundant  supply  of  blood  to  the  brain-cortex,  in 
consequence  of  a  congestion  in  the  latter,  an  abnormal  stimula- 
tion of  the  thinking  power  may  occur.  Of  course,  in  this  case 
various  toxins  also  play  a  certain  role. 

That  a  great  increase  of  blood-supply  to  the  brain,  a  con- 
gestion of  it,  may  exercise  a  favorable  influence  upon  the  abil- 
ity to  think  has  already  been  assumed  by  Aristotle.'^  He  men- 
tions that  through  this  cause  men  of  quite  ordinary  intellect 
became  poets,  prophets  and  sages. 

The  process  of  thinking  itself,  as  we  know  from  the 
famous  experiment  of  ^losso,^  causes  an  increased  blood-sup- 
ply to  the  brain.  He  had  a  man  stretched  horizontally  on  a 
board  which  was  supported  by  a  scale-like  arrangement,   and 


6  After   Lombroso,   cited   in   L'homme    de    genie,  4th    ed.     Paris,    1909, 
Seite,  292. 

'''  Aristoteles,  De  Pronostico,  Bd.  i,  p.  7. 

8  Mosso,  Sulla  circolazione  del  sangue  nel  cervello  dell'  uomo.     1880. 


Influence  of  Blood  Circulation  in  the  Brain.  5 

every  time  when  the  man  was  made  to  read  something  or  to 
think  of  something,  the  head  end  of  the  scale  dropped  down. 
Mosso^  also  studied  the  movements  of  the  brain  through  an 
open  wound  in  the  scalp,  and,  after  him,  others,  as,  for  in- 
stance, Frank,  Roy,  Sherrington,  have  done  the  same.  They 
have  found  that  when  the  man  read,  or  was  figuring  or  was 
thinking  of  some  problem,  the  brain,  due  to  the  increased  blood- 
supply  and  elevation  of  the  pressure,  protruded  through  such 
a  wound  in  the  scalp.  Mosso  has  also  proved,  by  means  of  a 
very  fine  measuring  instrument,  that  the  act  of  thinking  causes 
the  temperature  of  the  brain  to  rise.  Thus  we  see  that  for  the 
process  of  thinking  blood  is  required,  and  this  must  be  sup- 
plied in  sufficient  quantity,  because  when  the  brain  receives  too 
little  of  it,  as  it  is  the  case,  for  instance,  after  a  loss  of  blood 
or  in  anemia,  unconsciousness  takes  place.  When  we  have  such 
a  case  in  a  pale,  anemic  girl,  and  we  place  her  in  a  horizontal 
position,  then  more  blood  flows  to  the  brain,  and  with  it  con- 
sciousness ,  and  the  thinking  power  return  again.  In  case  of 
decapitation  when  the  blood  runs  out  from  the  head  the  con- 
sciousness is  also  lost.  The  story  that,  after  execution,  the  face 
of  the  guillotined  Charlotte  Corday  became  red  with  shame 
upon  being  slapped  by  the  executioner  must,  as  the  great  an- 
atomist HyrtP*'  very  justly  states,  be  untrue,  for  as  the  execu- 
tioner held  the  head  high  in  thei  air  all  o£  the  blood  rushed  out 
of  it  at  once. 

When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  flow  of  blood  to  the  brain 
is  great  it  may  be  followed  by  an  increased  mental  excitement, 
which  may  even  reach  a  degree  of  confusion,  as  happens  in 
fever  (delirium)  or  in  alcohol  intoxication.  If,  however,  a 
rich  flow  of  the  blood  to  the  brain  occurs  in  subjects  previously 
melancholic  and  imbecilic,  w^here,  as  a  rule,  the  circulation  is 
a  weaker  one,  then,  as  the  examples  above  mentioned  show,  an 
improvement  of  the  mental  condition  may  result,  at  least  dur- 

9  Mosso,  Die  Temperatur  des  Gehirns.     1899. 
10  Hyrtl,  Lehrbuch  der  topographischen  Anatomic.    Wien,  1874. 


Human  Intelligence. 


ing  the  time  of  increased  circulation.  We  thus  see  that  the 
process  of  thinking  is  very  much  influenced  by  the  conditions 
of  blood  circulation  in  the  brain.  We  must,  therefore,  take  care 
that  during  the  process  of  thinking  the  brain  be  sufficiently  sup- 
plied with  blood,  and  that  the  head  assumes  a  position  which, 
as  much  as  possible,  facilitates  the  flow  of  blood  to  the  brain. 
We,  instinctively  as  it  were,  bow  our  heads  forward  dur- 
ing strenuous  thinking  and  support  our  bent- forward  head  with 
our  hands.  This  is  the  position  in  which  the  artists  generally 
represent  a  person  engaged  in  thought.  Some  distinguished 
thinkers  could  best  concentrate  their  thoughts  on  problems  while 
lying  down;  thus,  for  instance,  Descartes  remained  in  bed  daily 
until  eleven  o'clock,  and  he  advised  the  distinguished  mathe- 
matician Pascal  to  do  the  same.  Descartes  was,  as  a  child, 
very  sickly,  and  was  confined  to  bed  for  years.  In  this  con- 
nection- one  is  reminded  of  the  fact  that  so  many  of  the  great 
thinkers  have  been  sickly  during  childhood,  some  of  them  being 
confined  to  bed  for  months.  Rossini  made  his  compositions 
lying  in  bed,  and  Leibnitz  used  to  lie  down  flat  upon  the  floor 
when  he  was  thinking  out  various  problems.  Schiller  placed 
his  feet  in  ice-cold  water  so  as  to  be  able  ^to  work  better.  We 
know  that  this  furthers  the  blood  congestion  in  the  brain. 
Bishop  Bossuet,  who  was  distinguished  for  elocutionary  abil- 
ity, on  the  other  hand,  used  to  wrap  his  head  up  with  hot 
towels  when  he  was  thinking  about  a  thesis.  Under  the  influ- 
ence of  enthusiasm,  inspiration,  frequently  the  greatest  ideas, 
the  most  powerful  thoughts  occur.  This  is  a  condition  orig- 
inating from  an  emotion,  and  is  similar  to  a  fever,  whereby  the 
pulse  becomes  accelerated,  the  face  glows,  the  eyes  gleam,  and 
the  whole  body  very  frequently  feels  hot.  In  a  great  many 
cases  great  works  originate  under  the  influence  of  such  a  mo- 
mentary exalted  condition,  such  a  blood  congestion  of  the  brain 
which  may  be  caused  by  various  kinds  of  impressions.  When 
the  great  English  historian  Gibbon  attended  one  evening  the 
vespers  of  the  Bare-footers  in  Rome,  the  songs  of  the  Monks 


Influence  of  Blood  Circulation  in  the  Brain.  7 

in  the  small  church  in  the  Capitol  excited  him  so  much  that 
he  became  inspired  with  the  idea  to  write  his  great  work  on 
the  destruction  of  the  Roman  Empire;  a  master  work,  hardly 
equalled  by  any  other  book  on  history,  exhibiting  such  a  won- 
derful power  of  description  and  a  vivid  way  of  presentation  as 
can  rarely  be  found  in  any  other  similar  work. 

There  are  various  substances  which  influence  the  mental 
activity  in  a  stimulating  way,  as,  for  instance,  coffee  and  tea. 
In  all  probability  the  eff'ect  of  these  depends  on  the  favorable 
influence  which  they  exercise  on  the  blood  circulation  of  the 
brain.  This  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  strong  coffee  and  tea 
produce  insomnia,  a  condition  in  which  a  dilation  of  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  brain-cortex  is  presupposed.  According  to  the 
experiments  of  ]\Iosso,  during  sleep  there  is  a  contraction  of 
the  blood-vessels  of  the  brain-cortex,  therefore  a  bloodless  con- 
dition exists. 

In  a  patient  with  an  open  scalp-wound  he  observed  a  flat- 
tening of  ,the  brain-surface  during  sleep,  but  when  the  patient 
was  dreaming  a  protuberation  of  the  brain  through  the  scalp- 
wound  could  be  demonstrated.  It  is  the  general  assumption 
that  a  dream  is  the  process  of  continued  thinking  during  sleep. 
This  unconscious  process  of  thinking  does  not  usually  occur 
during  profound  sleep  when  the  blood-vessels  of  the  cortex  are 
fully  contracted.  AVe  dream  only  during  the  time  when  the 
sleep  is  not  yet  very  deep,  or  when  on  the  verge  of  awaking, 
when  the  circulation  through  the  cortex  has  not  yet  entirely 
ceased,  or,  as  during  the  morning  hours,  when  sleep  becomes 
lighter,  probably  on  account  of  the  circulation  becoming  again 
gradually  established.  When  the  circulation  in  the  cortex  at- 
tains a  degree  of  congestion,  then  the  dreams  become  confused, 
the  same  as  during  fever.  Alcohol  intoxication  represents  a 
similar  condition.  At  any  rate,  many  demented  patients  act 
as  if  in  a  dream.  We  may  well  consider  the  state  of  mental 
confusion  itself  as  a  condition  of  dreaming  in  which  the  dreams 
are  of  a  confused  kind.     Very  often,  even  before  fever  sets  in, 


8  Human  Intelligence. 


the  dreams  during  the  night  assume  a  confused,  bizarre  form 
and  then  become  very  horrible,  as  I  have  been  able  several  times 
to  observe  in  myself,  particularly  before  the  beginning  of  a 
feverish  angina.  From  experience  I  know,  that  when  I  am 
tortured  with  such  dreams  I  can  expect  with  a  certainty  an 
attack  of  angina  the  next  day,  so  that  I  usually,  early  in  the 
morning,  take  some  quinine  to  prevent  the  attack  or  at  least 
to  ameliorate  it.  The  filling  of  the  cortex  with  blood  caused 
by  a  beginning  of  fever  has  undoubtedly  some  connection  with 
the  confused  character  of  the  dreams,  though  some  toxic  sub- 
stance may  also  have  some  play. 

Based  upon  all  these  observations  we  come  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  everything  which  furthers  the  blood  circulation  to  the 
brain-cortex  acts  upon  the  thinl<iing  ability  in  a  stimulating 
manner.  On  the  other  hand,  everything  which  hinders  it  acts 
upon  it  in  an  opposite  sense.  Consequently  the  power  of  think- 
ing stands  under  the  influence  of  the  conditions  of  blood  cir- 
culation of  the  brain-cortex. 

If  the  increased  blood-flow  to  the  brain  (on  one  hand) 
stimulates  the  functions  of  the  mind  and  exerts  a  favorable 
influence  upon  conditions  of  melancholic  depression,  then  a 
diminished  blood-flow  and  a  detraction  of  the  blood  circulation 
from  the  brain  can  (on  the  other  hand)  diminish  and  quiet 
down  the  excessively  increased  activity  of  the  latter  as,  for 
instance,  in  conditions  of  maniacal  exaltations.  In  an  over- 
abundant blood  congestion  to  the  brain,  favorable  effects  may 
be  obtained  by  all  means  and  processes  which  deviate  the  blood 
from  the  brain-cortex,  as,  for  example,  from  protracted  hot 
baths,  sweating  procedures,  strong  purgatives,  venesection;  the 
beneficial  effect  of  a  great  loss  of  blood  is  to  be  mentioned  in 
particular.  The  latter  I  was  able  to  observe  myself  once  on 
an  inmate  of  an  insane  asylum  at  Nizza.  A  maniac  had  cut 
a  deep  wound  on  the  neck  with  suicidal  intention.  He  lost  a 
great  deal  of  blood,  but  the  next  morning  his  mind  was  entirely 
clear,  and  I  was  able  to  hold  an  intelligent  conversation  with 


Influence  of  Blood  Circulation  in  the  Brain.  9 

him.  The  spiritual  brothers  in  the  institution  assured  me  that 
the  intellect  of  this  patient  disappeared  long  ago,  and  I  am 
much  inclined  to  believe  it,  for  several  weeks  previous  to  this 
time  he  had  eaten  up  the  last  phalanx  of  his  index  finger.  Very- 
instructive  is  also  in  this  respect  another  case  in  this  same 
institution,  for  the  history  of  which  I  am  indebted  to  the 
superintending  physician.  Dr.  Petri.  It  was  a  patient  severely 
afflicted  with  progressive  paralysis  who  became  affected  with  a 
phlegmonosis  of  the  foot.  A  severe  inflammation  set  in,  accom- 
panied by  discharge  of  pus  and  fever.  An  incision  was  made. 
The  process  on  the  foot  healed,  but  simultaneous  with  it  the 
mental  state  of  the  previously  stupid  patient  also  improved  to 
a  remarkable  degree.  His  mind  cleared  up,  and  he  was  dis- 
charged as  cured.  The  improvement  of  the  mental  condition 
was  followed,  however,  by  very  much  to  be  regretted  conse- 
quences, in  regard  to  his  bodily  welfare,  because  the  patient  was 
not  able  to  secure  any  employment  and  he  was  pitifully  starv- 
ing. In  the  asylum,  where  he  had  been  sure  of  his  daily  board, 
they  would  not  take  him  back  again,  because  he  was  mentally 
well.  This  proves  again  the  truth  that  sometimes  a  diseased 
mind  is  preferable  to  a  healthy  one. 

A  detraction  of  the  blood  circulation  from  the  brain  can 
also  be  accomplished  by  sleep-producing  remedies.  In  general 
these  remedies  (morphium),  etc.,  have  the  effect  of  lowering  the 
.  blood-pressure ;  less  blood  reaches  the  brain-cortex,  a  bloodless 
cortex  results,  and  thus  sleep  may  set  in.  When,  however,  such 
sleeping  remedies  are  used  for  any  length  of  time  there  is 
frequently  as  a  consequence  an  extraordinary  lowering  of  the 
thinking  faculty,  sometimes  even  a  total  stupidity,  as  may  some- 
times be  observed  after  a  constant  use  of  bromides.  A  condi- 
tion similar  to  imbecility,  with  symptoms  of  depression  and 
striking  disturbances  of  the  memory,  I  have  observed  in  a 
Spanish  lady  who  took  sulphonal  daily  for  several  years.  These 
disorders  of  mental  activity  may  well  be  attributed  to  disturb- 


10  Human  Intelligence. 


ances  of  the  blood  circulation  in  the  brain-cortex  caused  by  the 
sleep-producing  remedies. 

Roughly  speaking,  we  may  divide  mental  disorders  clinic- 
ally into  two  main  groups :  one  with  symptoms  of  depression, 
and  another  with  symptoms  of  exaltation.  In  the  first  group 
we  have  to  deal  in  a  general  way  with  a  retarded  and  insuffi- 
cient blood-supply,  in  the  second  with  a  too  rich  blood  conges- 
tion to  the  brain.  According  to  my  obser\^ations  we  can  notice 
very  frequently,  in  inmates  of  numerous  insane  asylums,  signs 
of  a  disturbance  of  the  blood-supply  in  general.  I  found  in  the 
usual  kind  of  mental  diseases — dementia  prsecox,  and  in  imbe- 
ciles, that  the  hands  and  feet  of  such  patients  are  frequently 
cold,  sometimes  even  ice-cold,  of  a  purplish  color;  the  hands 
looked  puffed  up,  swollen,  succulent.  The  pulse  is  ver}-^  small 
and  at  the  same  time  frequent. 

Wt  know,  moreover,  that  mental  disorders  may  originate 
very  often  on  the  base  of  disturbances  of  the  blood  circulation 
in  general,  very  frequently  in  heart  affections,  and  still  more 
often  in  diseases  of  the  blood-vessels.  Of  course,  in  this  case 
a  number  of  other  factors  may  also  participate,  as  for  instance 
— in  about  30  per  cent,  of  the  cases — hereditary  predisposition. 

How  great  an  influence  the  disturbance  of  the  state  of 
the  blood  circulation  in  the  brain-cortex  has  upon  the  origin 
of  the  mental  diseases  is  best  seen  from  the  result  of  the  post- 
mortem examinations  of  demented  patients.  In  looking  over 
the  greater  number  of  such  reports  there  are  found  mentioned, 
as  a  rule,  changes  in  the  blood-vessels.  Cases  of  mental  disease 
in  which  grave  changes  in  the  blood-vessels  of  the  cortex  have 
already  set  in,  as  we  see  it,  for  instance,  in  paralytic  insanity, 
are,  as  a  rule,  incurable,  or  inaccessible  to  improvement.  In 
milder  mental  diseases,  as  in  dementia  prsecox,  the  change 
which  takes  place  in  the  blood-vessels  of  the  cortex  is  not  of 
a  permanent  kind.  Such  cases  afford,  therefore,  favorable  pros- 
pects of  an  improvement  or  a  cure,  and  such  diseases  are  very 
often  of  a  transitory  kind.     Of  course,  even  in  those  cases,  thor- 


Influence  of  Blood  Circulation  in  the  Brain.  U 

ough  microscopic  examinations  reveal  changes  in  the  layers 
of  the  cortex  which  can  very  well  be  attributed  to  insufficient 
blood-supply.  Bolton^  ^  described,  some  years  ago,  a  striking- 
thinning  of  the  second  layer  with  a  diminishing  of  the  cells 
in  such  cases  and  a  flatter  depth  of  the  cortex,  as  in  imbeciles 
and  feeble-minded.  This,  as  well  as  the  atrophy  of  the  con- 
volutions of  the  brain  frequently  found  in  the  insane,  is  to  be 
attributed  to  the  same  cause  as  in  the  case  of  the  disappearing 
of  any  other  organ,  possibly  to  the  difficulties  in  the  proper 
supply  of  blood  and  the  nourishment  of  those  parts.  How 
much  the  nerve-cells  suffer  through  difficulties  in  blood-supply 
we  can  see  best  from  Stenson's  experiment,  in  which  the  col- 
umns of  the  spinal  cord  have  been  found  to  become  degener- 
ated through  compression  of  the  cells  in  the  pyramids.  When 
a  nerve-cell,  through  some  disturbance  of  the  blood  circulation, 
does  not  receive  enough  blood,  only  the  finest  changes  can  be 
observed  in  it,  a  swelling  of  the  parts  of  the  cells  and  chroma- 
tolysis ;  later  a  change  in  the  position  of  the  nucleus  takes  place, 
it  changes  its  location  and  migrates  to  the  periphery,  then  a 
formation  of  vacuoles  takes  place,  and  finally  this  disintegrates 
and  formation  of  connective  tissue  ensues. 

If  one  succeeds  in  supplying  blood  to  the  cell  before  it 
entirely  disappears  or  grave  changes  have  taken  place  in  it, 
then  the  status  quo  may  be  restored  in  more  or  less  measure. 
The  cells  of  our  body  crave  for  blood,  their  element  of  nour- 
ishment, and  the  nerve-cells  of  the  brain-cortex,  similar  to  any 
other  cells,  can  perform  their  function  only  when  they  are 
sufficiently  supplied  with  blood  in  the  proper  manner.  We  can 
observe  that  precautious  nature  supplies  most  abundantly  with 
blood  those  cells  to  which  is  assigned  the  most  important  func- 
tions. Thus  we  see  a  rich  supply  of  blood  in  such  a  small 
organ  as  the  thyroid  gland.  We  do  not  need  to  wonder,  there- 
fore that  the  most  delicate  part  of  the  human  body,  the  brain- 
cortex,  the  seat  of  our  thinking  power,  is  so  very  richly  sup- 

11  Bolton,  Brain,  1910. 


12  Human  Intelligence. 


plied  with  blood.  According  to  Ranke,  the  brain  receives  about 
four  ounces  of  blood,  and  a  greater  part  of  it  reaches  to  the 
brain-cortex.  The  gray  substance,  of  which  the  latter  consists, 
is,  contrary  to  the  white  substance,  very  richly  supplied  with 
blood.  When  Ruysch,  several  hundred  years  ago,  injected  the 
blood-vessels  ofl  the  brain,  he  was  so  struck  with  the  great  rich- 
ness of  the  blood-supply  of  the  cortex,  that  he,  instead  of  the 
commonly  used  name  at  that  time,  "glandular  tissue,"  named 
it  "vascular  tissue."  Leuwenhoek  and  Malpighi  have  also  em- 
phasized this  rich  blood-supply  of  the  cortex. 

It  must  indeed  be  striking  to  every  one  who  sees,  when 
the  scalp  is  .trephined,  what  a  quantity  of  blood  and  with  what 
force  and  under  what  great  pressure  it  spurts  out  from  even 
the  finest  capillaries  of  the  cortex.  The  fine,  very  long  vessels 
which  run  from  the  sexagonal  of  Willis  upward  to  the  cortex 
are  end-arteries  and  branch  out  in  the  cortex  in  a  tree-like 
fashion,  into  finest  vessels  and,  remarkably  enough,  do'  not  enter 
any  anastomosis.  The  purpose  of  this  arrangement  may  be 
to  afford  the  possibility  of  a  deeper  thinking  and  to  prevent 
the  disturbance  of  it.  The  six  arterial  vessels,  which  originate 
from  the  Willis  sexagonal,  before  they  become  end-vessels, 
give  off  short,  thick  vessels  to  the  ganglionic  portion  of  the 
brain.  As  it  was  already  pointed  out  by  Charcot^^  these  ves- 
sels have,  therefore,  a  very  short  journey  to  make  from  the 
heart  to  the  base  of  the  brain.  The  blood-supply  of  the  base 
of  the  brain  is  thus  much  easier  reached  than  that  of  our  think- 
ing centers,  and  therefore  it  may  happen,  as  it  was  particularly 
pointed  out  by  Meynert,^^  that  when  disturbances  in  the  con- 
ditions of  blood  circulation  in  the  brain  occur,  as  for  instance 
during  fainting,  the  circulation  in  the  brain-cortex  may  cease, 
while  the  blood  still  circulates  in  the  optic  regions  and  in  the 
striated  bodies. 


12  Charcot,   Legons  sur  les   localisations   dans   les   maladies   du   cerveau 
et  de  la  moelle  epiniere.     Paris,  1876-1880. 

i3Meynert,  Lehrbuch  der  Psychiatric.    Wien,  1884. 


Influence  of  Blood  Circulation  in  the  Brain.  13 

This  arrangement  of  the  blood-vessel  supply  in  the  brain 
makes  us  also  understand  why  disorders  of  our  thinking  power 
and  morbid  changes  of  the  mental  activity  so  easily  occur  if 
the  slightest  disturbance  in  the  condition  of  the  blood  circula- 
tion in  our  body  takes  place.  It  must,  indeed,  be  an  immense 
task  which  our  heart  has  to  perform,  to  so  push  the  quantity 
of  blood  (contrary  to  the  law  of  gravity)  far  upward  to  the 
remotest  parts  of  the  brain-cortex,  through  the  long,  fine  blood- 
vessels, and  their  hair-like  branches,  so  that  it  may  reach  every- 
where with  sufficient  pressure  and  in  proper  quantity. 

That  with  such  a  construction,  the  slightest  insufficiency 
of  the  heart-pump  may  easily  lead  to  disturbance  of  the  blood- 
supply  of  the  brain-cortex,  and  in  consequence  of  it  tO'  disor- 
ders of  the  thinking  faculty,  can  readily  be  understood,  I  want 
to  call  attention  in  a  particular  manner  also  to  the  resistance 
which,  besides  the  narrowness  of  the  finer  blood-vessels,  is 
offered  by  the  state  of  viscosity  in  them. 

The  viscosity  of  the  blood,  that  means  the  inner  friction 
of  the  blood,  must;  naturally  play  a  great  role  in  the  hair-fine 
vessels  of  the  cortex,  which  undoubtedly  belong  among  the 
finest  in  our  body,  and  still  I  do  not  know  that  anyone  has 
ever  engaged  himself  in  investigating  this  question  in  connec- 
tion with  the  blood  circulation  in  the  brain. 

The  less  viscous  the  blood  is,  the  more  liquid  it  is,  and 
the  more  easily  it  will  circulate. 

If  the  blood  is  to  be  brought  to  the  blood-vessels  in  the 
cortex  in  sufficient  quantity  and  be  circulated  through  the  lat- 
ter, the  blood-pressure  must  be  sufficiently  great.  In  chlorosis 
and  anemia,  in  Addison's  disease,  in  insufficient  nourishment 
during  convalescence  after  grave  diseases,  after  taking  various 
sleep-inducing  remedies,  everywhere,  where  the  blood-pressure 
is  weak,  the  cortex'  is  also  nourished  very  weakly,  and  the  men- 
tal activity  in  general  is  not  very  lively;  sometimes  it  may  be 
very  sluggish. 

Thus  the  blood-pressure  conditions  in  the  body  play  here 


14  Human  Intelligence. 


a  very  great  role.  Generally  speaking,  the  observation  can  be 
made  that  various  means  which  increase  the  blood-pressure 
exert  also-  a  favorable  influence  upon  the  conditions  of  the 
blood  circulation  in  the  brain  and  consequently  upon  the  men- 
tal activity.  AVe  must,  however,  keep  in  mind  the  resistance 
which  is  offered  by  the  fine  blood-vessels  of  the  cortex.  When 
the  latter  are  morbidly  changed,  then  the  blood  may,  under 
some  circumstances,  even  when  blood-pressure  is  good  or  in- 
creased, stream  in  mainly  to  the  short,  wide  vessels  which 
branch  off  from  the  arteries,  before  they  continue  the  way  to 
the  cortex  in  form  of  long,  fine  end-arteries,  and  to  which  is 
assigned  the  supply  of  blood  to  the  middle  and  lower  parts  of 
the  brain;  it  will  not  reach,  however,  the  long,  fine  vessels  and 
their  branches.  It  may  then  happen  that  objects  may  be  seen 
and  sounds  may  be  heard,  but  mentally  they  are  imperceptible; 
this  is  mind  blindness  and  aphasia  of  words.  Thus  cases  have 
been  reported  of  a  professor  or  a  minister  who,  taking  a  manu- 
script from  his  pocket,  sees  the  letters  and  words  on  it  and  can- 
not read  them,  because  he  does;  not  understand  them. 

Peripheral  sight  is  still  possible,  because  the  peripheral 
organs  of  sight  are  still  sufficiently  supplied  with  blood  and 
are  functionating,  whereas  in  center  of  the  mental,  conscious 
sight, — in  the  cortex, — disturbances  of  circulation  have  taken 
place.  Most  frequently  this  has  taken  place  in  cases  of  arterio- 
sclerotic or  syphilitic  changes  in  the  blood-vessels  of  the  cortex, 
which  are  also  very  often  the  causes  of  mental  diseases.  Be- 
sides arteriosclerotic  changes,  an  important  role  in  producing 
disturbances  of  mental  activity  is  played  by  increasing  viscos- 
ity of  the  blood,  its  inner  rubbing  on  the  hair-like  blood-vessels 
in  the  cortex,  notwithstanding  that,  according  to  my  knowl- 
edge, no  attention  whatever  has  been  paid  to  this  subject  so 
far.  This  condition  may  play  a  certain  role  in  arteriosclero- 
sis as  well  as  in  the  origin  of  mental  diseases,  as  also  in  various 
diseases  of  metabolism,  as,  for  instance,  in  gout.  In  the  Father- 
land of  the  Gout  at  least,  in  England,  very  prominent  psychia- 


Influence  of  Blood  Circulation  in  the  Brain.  15 

trlsts  attribute  the  cause  or  origin  of  mental  diseases  to  uric 
acid.  Between  fully  developed  mental  diseases  and  the  intact 
mental  state  and  between  the  ingenious  mind  and  narrow- 
minded  stupidity,  there  are  numerous  intermediate  grades,  in 
which,  according  to  the  above  report,  in  all  probability  the  mode 
of  blood-supply  to  the  cortex  plays  a  great  role. 

We  may  assume  as  positive  that  for  the  normal  function 
of  the  brain-cortex,  for  normal  thinking  therefore,  a  regulated 
blood-supply  is  the  main  requirement.  With  the  blood  the 
nerve-cells  of  the  cortex  receive  not  only  important  nutritive 
substances,  like  nutritive  salts  which  for  them  are  indispen- 
sable, lime  and  phosphorus,  but  also  other  highly  important 
substances,  the  products  of  the  glands  of  internal  secretions, 
phagocytic  and  antitoxic  acting  substances.  Upon  a  regulated 
supply  of  these  substances  depends  the  functionating  ability  of 
the  brain-cortex,  and  also  the  origin  and  curability  of  mental 
disorders;  in  a  broader  sense,  however,  it  depends  on  the  con- 
dition of  those  organs  which  regulate  this  supply,  and  these 
are  the  blood-glands  (glands  of  Inter.  Secret.).  These  latter 
are  the  organs  which  control  the  blood-pressure  and  blood  cir- 
culation in  the  brain,  also  the  lime  and  phosphorus  metabolism, 
as  well  as  the  immunity  of  the  tissues  toward  bacteria  and  other 
toxic  substances. 


CHAPTER   II. 

The  Influence  of  the  Glands  of  Internal  Secretion 

UPON  the  Faculty  of  Thinking  and  the  Origin 

of  Mental  Disorders. 

It  is  possible  to  observe  that  during  menstruation  many 
women  are  very  excitable,  even  highly  nervous.  Their  power 
of  thinking  is  also  frequently  limited^  and  they  are  not  in  the 
mood  to  do'  anything  in,  the  line  of  mental  work.  When  I  once 
visited  the  Telephone  Central  station  of  a  very  large  town  in 
company  of  one  of  the  directors  who  was  my  patient,  he  made 
the  remark  that  at  certain  times  some  of  the  girls  employed 
require  great  leniency^  and  that  their  failings  may  be  attributed 
to  physiological  causes.  During  my  inspecting  tours  through 
the  large  female  jails  of  the  United  States,  the  matrons,  in 
response  to  my  inquiries,  also  informed  me  that  during  such 
time  the  prisoners  are  very  unmanageable,  while  at  other  times 
they  behave  themselves  very  quietly. 

The  symptoms  may  be  still  more  stormy  when  the  men- 
struation is  accompanied  by  pain  or  when  other  disturbances 
are  present  due  to  changes  in  the  ovaries  and  in  the  uterus. 
Mental  disturbances,  and  even  true  mental  diseases,  may  break 
out.  Such  observations  were  made  thirty-three  years  ago  by 
B.  S.  Schultze  in  Jena  on  patients  suffering  from  misplace- 
ments and  inflammations  of  the  ovaries  and  the  uterus.  After 
successful  gynecological  treatment  a  decided  improvement  of 
the  nervous  and  mental  disorders  took  place.  AVhen,  however, 
there  was  a  recurrence  of  the  disorders  of  the  genital  organs 
the  mental  derangement  could  again  be  noted.  It  is,  therefore, 
necessary  in  mentally  diseased  females  to  pay  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  condition  of  the  genital  organs.  I  have  observed 
quite  frequently  in  many  female  inmates  of  asylums  symptoms 
which  pointed  to  changes  or  non-development  of  the  genitalia. 
(16) 


Influence  of  the  Glands  of  Internal  Secretion.-  17 

So  I  have  observed  on  them  very  flat  chests;  the  mammary 
glands  w^ere  scantily  developed;  very  often  there  were  present 
disorders  of  menstruation,  lack  of  it  or  other  irregularities. 
These  are  found  most  particularly  in  patients  suffering  from 
the  most  usual  form  of  mental  disease,  dementia  precox. 

It  is  even  a  common  every-day  observation  that  all  changes 
taking  place  in  the  female  genitalia  cause  also  changes  of  think- 
ing ability, — of  the  intellect.  Young  girls  become  very  rest- 
less before  the  first  menstruation  occurs.  In  school  they  are 
absent-minded,  inattentive,  very  excitable,  and  nothing  can  be 
done  with  them.  Frequently  the  whole  character  becomes 
changed,  in  some  a  wandering  desire  develops,  and  they  leave 
their  homes  without  apparent  cause.  Others,  again,  develop 
suicidal  intent,  which  fortunately  is  accomplished  only  in  rare 
instances.  A  similar  frequency  of  mental  disorders  may  be 
observed  during  other  periods  of  female  sexual  life,  as,  for 
instance,  pregnancy  and  during  puerperium;  psychoses  during 
pregnancy  surely  are  not  rare.  During  lactation,  changes  of 
mental  life  do  occur.  Mostly,  however,  do  such  disorders 
appear  when  the  activity  of  the  ovaries  is  at  an  end  and  men- 
struation entirely  ceases.  Then  a  mighty  storm  passes  through 
the  intellectual  life  of  the  woman;  she  becomes  nervous,  excit- 
able; neurasthenic  and  hysteric  troubles  are  then  at  their  height, 
clear  thinking  is  often  disturbed,  mental  activity  becomes  almost 
entirely  impossible,  the  woman  cannot  take  notice  of  anything 
and  cannot  keep  anything  in  memory,  nothing  excites  her  atten- 
tion. She  walks  through  the  streets  dreaming,  and  does  not  see 
her  acquaintances  when  they  pass  her.  Such  diseases  are 
still  more  pronounced  sometimes  in  single  women,  particularly 
in  those  who  pass  this  most  difficult  period  in  woman's  life  as 
virgins.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  during  these  periods  disturb- 
ances of  the  blood  circulation  also  occur,  characterized  by  con- 
gestion taking  place  and,  as  we  have  already  pointed  out  in  the 
last  chapter  the  influence  which  the  blood  circulation  has  upon 
the  intellect,  we  cannot  wonder  that  during  climacterium  men- 


18  Human  Intelligence. 


tal  diseases  occur  so  often.  In  such  women  we  frequently 
find  also  changes  in  the  secondary  sexual  characteristics, — for 
instance,  a  tendency  to  grow  a  beard  which,  as  we  have  spoken 
of  more  in  detail  in  our  work,  "Old  Age  Deferred,"  point  to 
disturbances  of  the  inner  secretion  of  the  sexual  glands.  A 
very  well  developed  case  of  that  kind  I  observed  only  a 
short  time  ago  in  the  clinic  of  Professor  Ballet  in  the  Insane 
Asylum  of  St.  Anne  in  Paris.  It  was  the  case  of  a  woman,  54 
years  of  age,  who  had  a  beautiful  mustache,  and  as  a  pendant 
a  very  sightly  goatee  (Knebel)  on  the  chin.  She  begged  the 
superintendent  (Professor  Lay.  F.)  in  my  presence  to  send  her 
a  barber,  as  she  was  ashamed  of  looking  so  much  like  a  man 
before  the  other  ladies  of  the  ward.  With  the  lack  of  the 
sexual  characteristics  is  also  connected  the  fact  which  I  have 
observed  very  frequently,  namely,  that  most  patients  suffering 
from  dementia  prsecox  have  flat  breasts. 

In  men  we  also  very  often  see  the  thinking  power  influ- 
enced by  changes  of  the  sexual  organs.  So  even  in  chronic 
gonorrhea  there  sometimes  develops  a  neurasthenic  condition 
which  may  reach  a  high  degree  when,  as  often  happens,  the 
prostate  gland  becomes  involved.  The  same  may  occur  in  vari- 
cocele. I  observed  a  similar  case  four  years  ago  in  a  young 
Spaniard  from  Barcelona,  who  had  melancholic  attacks,  some- 
times with  suicidal  ideas.  His  father  could  not  begin  to  do 
anything  with  him  in  his  business;  he  was  down-hearted  and 
discouraged,  and  could  not  learn  anything  because  he  could  not 
memorize  anything.  After  I  ordered  him  to  wear  a  suspen- 
sorium,  a  slight  improvement  in  his  condition  took  place.  He 
felt  mostly  depressed  on  account  of  his  impotence.  In  case  of 
the  latter  we  also  see  not  infrequently  these  attacks  of  deep 
despondency  with  their  depressing  effects  on  the  mentality. 
The  highest  degree  of  melancholia  may  then  be  due  to  certain 
diseases,  as,  for  instance,  in  tuberculosis  of  the  testicle,  which 
necessitates  its  removal ;  the  observation  was  made  that  patients 
became  melancholic  and  committed  suicide.     That  in  case  of 


Influence  of  the  Glands  of  Internal  Secretion.  19 

absence  or  destruction  of  the  male  sexual  glands,  mental  dis- 
eases may  occur,  becomes  easily  understood  when  I  mention 
that  in  dementia  prsecox  the  testes  are  frequently  found  very 
small,  sometimes  not  descended.  The  same  as  in  women  suf- 
fering from  dementia  prsecox,  the  sexual  characters  in  male 
patients  are  also  undeveloped,  and  such  individuals  frequently 
manifest  an  infantile  appearance  in  general.  The  mustache  is 
very  sparse,  even  when  they  are  over  30  years  of  age.  Some- 
times female  patients  with  dementia  prsecox  appear  like  boys 
or  men,  whereas  in  some  male  patients  with  dementia  prsecox 
the  face  is  more  womanlike,  or,  even  at  the  age  of  30,  like 
that  of  a  boy.  The  castrated  also  not  rarely  show  similar  fea- 
tures. I  have  also  in  mind  those  male  persons  in  whom  the 
sexual  glands  are  congenitally  insufficiently  developed,  or  be- 
cause descension  has  not  taken  place,  cannot  be  felt  at  all.  Such 
persons  are  easily  recognizable  as  of  that  special  eunuch  type 
already  mentioned  in  my  work  on  "Old  Age,"  and  which, 
therefore,  need  not  again  be  described.  Almost  all  manifest  a 
mental  inferiority,  and  of  the  number  I  have  personally  ob- 
served all  showed  signs  of  weak  intelligence.  Those  of  poor 
circumstance  never  attain  any  success,  but  are  fitted  only  for 
lowly  positions.  Such  subjects  also  are  usually  stunted  in 
growth.  Of  this  infantile  type,  those  who  grow  tall,  usually 
have  a  short  chest  with  long  arms.  Sometimes  there  is  found 
a  degree  of  intelligence  and  not  rarely  among  them  individuals 
with  education,  but  this  is  more  or  less  of  an  imitative  kind, 
similar  to  what  we  find  in  children;  by  great  diligence  they 
may  be  able  even  to  obtain  the  degree  of  lecturer — I  know 
such  infantiles  in  such  positions,  but  however  diligent  in  work- 
ing out  a  given  thesis,  their  work  does  not  by  any  means  show 
any  originality  in  thinking.  In  regard  to  castrates,  their  intelli- 
gence depends  particularly  upon  whether  they  have  been  cas- 
trated in  early  childhood  or  only  later,  as,  for  example,  the  poor 
Abelard.  We  will  take  up  this  question  in  the  chapter  on  the 
influence  of  sexual  impulse  on  the  intelligence.     In  those  who 


20  Human  Intelligence. 


were  unfortunate  enough  to  lose  manhood  later  in  life  through 
disease,  by  accident  or  force,  as  frequently  happens  in  the  States 
of  South  America — very  often  melancholia  and  suicide  ensue. 
The  most  frequent  cause  of  the  disease  here  is  tuberculosis  of 
the  testicle.  Luckily  enough  at  present  testes  are  not  removed 
any  more  in  their  entirety;  a  part  of  it  remains,  because  we 
know  that  even  parts  of  a  ductless  gland,  when  they  only  reach 
a  certain  size,  may  replace  the  whole  gland.  We  are  also  able 
nowadays  to  cure  tuberculosis  of  the  testicle  without  any  opera- 
tion, by  sun  treatment  in  places  where  the  sun  rays  are  acting 
most  intensely.  Castration  in  women  takes  place  more  fre- 
quently than  in  men.  Fortunately  times  are  past  when  hys- 
terical women  and  girls  were  castrated  to  cure  hysteria.  Every 
conscientious  surgeon  is  nowadays  also  very  anxious  to  retain 
at  least  a  small  portion  of  the  ovaries.  I  have  observed  a  num- 
ber of  women  with  only  one  ovary  without  noticing  any  devia- 
tion from  normal  intelligence.  In  those,  however,  in  whom 
both  ovaries  have  been  removed  one  can  notice,  not  rarely,  of 
course  only  years  after  the  operation,  an  abatement  of  their 
intellectual  abilities.  Last  summer  I  observed  a  case  in  which 
both  ovaries  were  removed  ten  years  ago.  The  case  in  ques- 
tion was  that;  of  a  French  lady  of  42  years  of  age,  who  had 
formerly  been  gifted  with  particular  mental  efficiency.  In  re- 
cent years  a  noticeable  downfall  of  her  mental  faculties  has 
taken  place.  First  of  all,  her  memory  suffered  very  much;  she 
could  not  keep  in  mind  anything  I  was  telling  her,  even  the 
least  advice  I  gave  her  I  had  to  write  down;  notwithstanding 
all  detailed  explanation  she  could  understand  even  the  easiest 
things  only  with  difficulty.  She  was  dull  in  perception,  and 
also  helpless  to  the  greatest  degree  in  all  she  undertook,  even 
in  her  movements.  She  assumed  that  she  could  not  walk  well, 
notwithstanding  the  muscle  and  nerve  activity  of  the  legs  had 
manifested  nothing  pathological.  She  actually  drove  around  in 
a  carriage  the  whole  day;  even  for  what  would  have  been  a 


Influence  of  the  Glands  of  Internal  Secretion.  21 

three-minute  walk  she  had  to  take  a  carriage.  It  was  as  if 
she  had  forgotten  the  use  of  her  legs  altogether. 

Not  infrequently  we  may  find  a  significant  lowering  of 
mental  faculties  in  women  in  whom  the  sexual  glands  have 
ceased  their  activity  through  physiological  processes,  as,  for 
instance,  in  climacterium.  In  most  women  menstruation  ceases 
at  the  end  of  the  fortieth  year;  in  many  it  still  lasts  several 
years,  in  others  again  old  age  changes  occur  in  the  middle  of 
the  fortieth  year,  particularly  in  old  maids  or  widows  of  long 
standing.  In  such  persons  one  can  observe  not  rarely  a  certain 
limitation  of  mental  perception  and  judgment;  they  are  some- 
times peculiar  or  are  entirely  apathetic,  retired  into  themselves, 
and  care  very  little  for  the  happenings  in  the  outside  world. 
Very  frequently  they  are  very,  very  religious  and  become  real 
praying  sisters.  Their  religion  is,  however,  actually  more  a 
superstition,  devoted  only  to  the  appearance,  because  they  have 
not  the  necessary  power  of  perception  to  grasp  the  essential 
basis  of  the  religion.  Very  many  of  the  once-upon-a-time  feted 
beauties,  who  at  the  time  when  they  were  at  the  height  of  their 
glory  should  have  gone  to  confession  on  account  of  a  full  reg- 
ister of  gallant  sins  which  they  committed,  but  who  never 
thought  of  taking  that  step,  are  doing  it  so  much  more  dili- 
gently now,  confessing  sins  which  they  only  wish  to  commit, 
or  have  done  only  in  thought,  because  to  the  real  committing 
of  such,  unmerciful  nature,  which  has  set  a  time  limit  to  every- 
thing (everything  on  earth  is  only  temporary)  offers  them 
no  more  opportunity. 

In  men  the  sexual,  activity,  for  causes  given  more  fully  in 
our  book  "Old  Age,"  does  not  become  diminished  even  when 
advanced  old  age  is  reached.  In  regard  to  this  point  we  are, 
therefore,  placed  more  at  an  advantage  than  women;  in  the 
latter  the  influence  of  the  sexual  life  upon  the  welfare  of  the 
body  and  mind  is  actually  a  more  profound  one.  Many  of 
their  bodily  and,  still  more,  of  their  mental  ailments  come  from 
that  source,  and  in  fact  many  of  their  complaints  can  be  cured 


22  Human  Intelligence. 


by  attacking  them  from  that  point.  How  great  this  influence 
upon  their  mental  state  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  mental 
diseases  occur  much  more  frequently  in  women  than  in  men. 
Demented  women,  and  women  criminals  as  well,  are  often  very 
much  more  difficult  to  treat  than  men,  so  that  once  a  Belgian 
colleague,  when  I  visited  the  male  asylum  under  his  supervision, 
said  to  me,  "Thank  God  that  I  have  no  demented  women  under 
my  care."  This  great  difference  may,  in  my  opinion,  be  attrib- 
uted to  the  fact  that  changes  in  the  sexual  glands  of  women, 
to  a  much  greater  extent  than  in  men,  exercise  an  unfavorable 
influence  also  upon  another  very  important  ductless  gland,  that 
is,  the  thyroid  gland.  Thus  we  see  an  increase  of  activity  of 
the  thyroid  after  various  changes  of  the  sexual  glands,  and 
may  observe  a  distinct  swelling  of  the  thyroid  in  12-  or  14- 
year-old  girls  before  the  first  appearance  of  menstruation;  this 
may  be  noticeable  in  many  young  girls,  and  also  in  women  dur- 
ing each  menstruation,  and  still  more  distinctly  in  pregnancy. 
It  may  come  to  a  development  of  real  goiter,  which  may  make 
its  appearance  during  puerperium.  Various  morbid  changes  of 
the  ovaries,  very  frequently  also  inherited  weakness  (insuffi- 
ciency of  the  ovaries )  may  cause  such  a  swelling  of  the  thyroid 
gland.  All  these  changes  of  the  thyroid  are,  as  a  rule,  asso- 
ciated with  changes  in  the  thinking  ability,  and  not  rarely  they 
are  followed  by  real  mxcntal  diseases.  The  impulse  for  wan- 
dering in  young  girls  during  puberty  we  have  already  men- 
tioned. Sometimes  they  manifest  a  depressed  melancholic  con- 
dition associated  with  suicidal  ideas.  In  some  young  girls 
there  is  found  a  state  of  ovarian  insufficiency,  menstruation 
begins  very  late,  and  at  the  same  time  there  exists  a  number 
of  bodily  symptoms  which  I  have  described  in  detail  in  my 
book  on  "Old  Age,"  and  which  also  indicates  the  existence  of 
deficiencies  in  development  of  the  body.  In  such  individuals 
we  also  observe  very  poorly  developed  intelligence ;  they  are 
very  slow  in  perception  in  their  studies  and  the  teachers  have 
difficulty  with  them.     If  later  the  menstruation  sets  in,  they 


Influence  of  the  Glands  of  Internal  Secretion.  23 

have  very  much  pain  during  such  periods ;  the  menstrual  periods 
are  irregular,  either  too  strong  or  too  weak  or  lacking  for  sev- 
eral months.  All  these  disturbances  react  on  the  mentality. 
Simultaneously  with  dysmenorrhea  or  amenorrhea  very  often 
in  these  girls  may  be  observed  symptoms  of  chlorosis.  Von 
Noorden,  Dalch  and  others  attribute  the  latter  to  changes  in 
the  ovaries,  particularly  to  inherited  weakness  of  them.  In  my 
opinion  they  are  also  due  to  the  changes  in  the  thyroid  gland, 
which  is  very  often  noticeably  and  distinctly  swollen.  These 
disorders  become  much  more  pronounced  in  cases  of  pregnancy 
where  a  true  struma  forms  with  symptoms  of  Basedow's  dis- 
ease. Cases  of  mental  disease  in  such  conditions  are  very  fre- 
quently reported.  Also  the  highly  nervous  disorders,  which 
occur  during  climacterium  and,  more  or  less,  make  thinking 
more  difficult,  are  undoubtedly  in  relation  to  the  increased 
activity  of  the  thyroid  gland  during  the  climacterium.  This 
manifests  itself  by  great  increase  of  the  pulse,  frequently  heat 
sensation  (congestion),  sweats,  high  state  of  nervousness,  etc. 
That  the  thyroid  gland  influences  the  mental  ability  to  an 
extraordinary  degree  is  best  demonstrated  by  the  example  of 
cretinism.  The  cretin  very  frequently  has  a  very  large  struma. 
This,  however,  is  not  due  to  an  increase  of  the  thyroid  activ- 
ity, as  is  the  case  during  pregnancy  or  in  Basedow's  disease, 
because,  while  in  the  latter  it  depends  on  increased  activity  of 
glandular  tissue,  in  the  cretin  it  consists  of  entirely  inactive 
tissue,  namely,  connective  tissue.  In  the  struma  of  the  cretin 
there  can  hardly  be  found  normal  tissue  any  more;  it  is  all 
connective  tissue,  or  one  which  has  undergone  colloid  degen- 
eration. The  proper  function  of  the  thyroid  depends  on  its 
content  of  normal  colloid  substance.^  As  I  have  shown  already 
years  ago,  a  thyroid  which  contains  no  normal  colloid,  contains 
also  no  iodine.  The  organic  iodine  of  the  thyroid  plays  the 
greatest  role  in  the  activity  of  that  gland.  A  strumous  degen- 
eration of  the  thyroid  may,  as  we  have  seen,  often  be  demon- 

1  Lorand,  Old  Age. 


24  Human  Intelligence. 


strated  in  patients  with  mental  diseases.  As,  for  instance,  I 
found  years  ago  in  the  Asylum  of  Pontiac,  in  the  State  of 
Michigan,  United  States,  very  well  developed  strumse  in  a  large 
number  of  female  patients,  namely,  in  loo  out  of  600  patients 
with  dementia  prsecox  and  melancholia.  Since  then  I  have 
repeatedly  found  this  in  such  patients,  and  have  found  men- 
strual diseases  or  disorders  of  the  sexual  organs  in  conjunc- 
tion with  more  or  less  developed  swelling  of  the  thyroid  gland 
in  a  great  number  of  female  inmates  of  various  asylums,  par- 
ticularly in  cases  of  melancholia  and  dementia  prsecox.  Such 
patients  are  also  much  more  restless  during  menstruation; 
others,  again,  manifest  an  improvement  of  their  mental  condi- 
tion. This  is  undoubtedly  caused  by  the  increase  of  thyroid 
activity  during  that  period.  If,  therefore,  mental  diseases  are 
caused  by  inactivity  of  the  thyroid,  as  it  is  not  rarely  the 
case  in  dementia  prsecox  and  melancholia,  then  the  improve- 
ment during  the  menstrual  period  becomes  easily  understood. 
In  other  idiots — I  examined  a  number  of  them  in  the  city 
asylum  at  Nizza — I  could  find  no  thyroid  at  all,  notwithstand- 
ing my  searching  for  it  on  both  sides  of  the  neck  and  pene- 
trating deep  into  the  clavicular  grooves  with  my  hands,  and 
notwithstanding  that  the  patients  were  very  much  emaciated. 
A  struma  consisting  entirely  of  connective  tissue,  degenerated 
thyroid-gland  tissue  or  an  entire  absence  of  the  thyroid  amount 
to  the  same.  In  both  conditions  the  human  being  is  stupid,  like 
an  animal ;  nay,  a  mentally  normal  dog  is  much  more  advanced 
in  regard  to  mind  than  such  a  human  creature.  Such  idiots 
are,  in  most  instances,  born  that  way.  They  come  into  the 
world  without  thyroid,  so  to  say,  and  at  the  post  mortem  no 
thyroid  at  all  is  found  or  only  a  meager  trace  of  it.  There 
exists,  therefore,  an  inborn  aplasia  of  the  thyroid.  These  chil- 
dren have  a  general  typical  look.  Their  faces  show  very  little 
humor;  through  the  wide-open  mouth  can  be  seen  a  thick, 
swelled  tongue  sticking  out,  the  abdomen  is  very  much  dis- 
tended.   These  individuals  remain  very  stunted  in  their  growth, 


Influence  of  the  Glands  of  Internal  Secretion.  25 

and  at  the  age  of  20  still  look  like  small  children.  Mentally 
they  stand  on  the  lowermost  grade,  they  cannot  talk,  and  their 
pleasures  and  displeasures  are  expressed  by  a  kind  of  grunting 
and  by  means  of  inarticulate  sounds.  A  case  of  this  kind  was 
a  Russian  Jewess,  whom  von  Eiselsberg^  presented  to  the  Vienna 
Royal  Society  of  Physicians.  It  was  a  girl  who  was  only  30 
cm.  tall,  her  skin  was  scaly,  the  forehead  was  covered  with 
hair;  this  creature  gave  only  unconnected  inarticulated  sounds. 
The  thyroid  could  not  be  felt  at  all. 

The  condition  which  these  children  manifest  we  call  con- 
genital myxedema.  Now,  everything  in  the  world  has  its 
cause,  and  such  a  condition  does  not  come  of  itself;  it  is  not 
that  nature  made  here  some  obscure  blunder,  but  man  himself 
is  at  fault,  and  it  is  either  the  father  or  the  mother.  In  most 
instances  the  parents  of  these  children  have  induced  degenera- 
tive changes  of  their  thyroid  gland  through  years  of  continued 
drinking  of  much  alcohol,  01"  through  lues,  and  did  not  undergo 
radical  treatment  before  marriage.  Lues  attacks  the  thyroid 
in  a  most  particular  way  in  its  secondary  stage;  one  can  fre- 
quently see  symptoms  of  fever,  and  particularly  in  women  one 
can  observe  also  a  slight,  sometimes  even  a  very  pronounced 
swelling  of  the  thyroid.  These  changes  of  the  thyroid  are, 
moreover,  transmitted  to  the  children  the  same  as  changes  in 
all  other  ductless  glands  are  transmitted  in  general.^  Perrando^ 
found  a  degeneration  of  the  thyroid  in  the  newborn  of  luetic 
parents. 

As  the  investigations  of  Roger  and  Garnier,^  and  many 
others  show,  all  infectious  diseases  injure  the  ductless  glands, 
and  in  the  first  place  the  thyroid.  First  it  comes  to  an  over- 
activity with  symptoms  similar  to  those  which  we  observed  in 
Basedow's  disease ;  later,  however,  it  comes  to  a  state  of  ex- 


2  V.  Eiselsberg,  Wiener  Gescllschaft  der  Aerzte,  Sitzimg  7,  Juni,  1912. 

3  Lorand,  Kongress  f  iiir  innere  Medizin,  1903,  Wiesbaden,  und  das  Altem. 

4  Perrando,  Sulla  struttura  della  Tiroide.    Sassari,  1900. 

5  Roger  et  Garnier,  Presse  medicale,  15  Avril,  1899, 


26  Human  Intelligence. 


haustion,  and  then  to  the  conditions  which  we  identify  as  myx- 
edema. Simultaneously,  however,  important  changes  in  the 
thinking  faculty  take  place.  According  to  Pilz®  the  psychical 
symptoms  of  such  a  condition  are :  slowness  in  thinking,  apathy, 
weakness  of  memory,  sleepiness.  In  mild  degrees  of  this  dis- 
ease, before  it  was  fully  developed,  Murray,'''  and  after  him 
Hertoghe,^  have  described  hallucinations;  the  patient  believed 
that  he  saw  mice  and  rats  running  through  the  room.  Suicidal 
inclinations  have  also  been  observed  by  these  as  well  as  other 
authors.  I  have  seen  in  most  of  such  patients  a  melancholic 
disposition.  They  were  so  apathetic  that  they  could  not  take 
a  step  without  thinking  about  it.  Rising  from  their  seats  was 
to  them  quite  a  trouble.  The  speech  wasT  very  slow,  the  voice 
entirely  soundless.  Such  a  case  of  still  undeveloped  myx- 
edema I  saw  in  Professor  Pel's  department  in  Amsterdam,  who 
called  my  attention  to  the  entirely  soundless  voice  of  a  patient, 
as  well  as  her  ice-cold  nose.  The  color  of  the'  face  was  a 
ghastly  pallor.  I  might  compare  this  paleness  of  patients  with 
myxedema,  or  the  castrated,  and  those  suffering  from  weak- 
ness of  the  testicle,  to  the  paleness  of  a  fish's  abdomen.  Un- 
doubtedly this  is  connected  with  the  weakness  and  great  slow- 
ness of  the  blood  circulation. 

These  fully  developed  cases  of  myxedema  are  altogether 
rare.  Unfortunately  they  are  very  frequently  considered  as 
chronic  Bright's  disease,  to  which  Professor  Marchiafava,  with 
perfect  justice,  called  attention  only  recently.  Undeveloped 
cases  of  simple  weakness  of  the  thyroid — hypothyroiditis — are, 
on  the  contrary,  much  more  frequent.  What  is  present  in  the 
highest  degree  in  myxedema  we  see  here  less  developed;  only 
the  individual  symptoms  are  more  or  less  pronounced.  We  see 
that  distinctly  in  regard  to  disorders  of  the  memory.    In  fully 


6  In  Oppenheim,  Lehrbuch  der  Nervenkrankheiten,  IV  Aufl.  Berlin, 
1905,  S.  1382,  Bd.  ii. 

'''Murray,  Diseases  of  the  Thyroid  Gland.    London,  1900.     S.  97. 

8  Hertoghe,  Der  chronische  gutartige  Hypothyroidismus.  Lehmann, 
Miinchen,  1898. 


Influence  of  the  Glands  of  Internal  Secretion.  27 

developed  myxedema  the  typical  point  of  the  disorder  is  that 
all  occurrences  during  youth  are  kept  in  memory  very  well, 
whereas  new  impressions  are  not  noticed,  and  also  not  taken  in 
and  fixed  in  the  memory.  We  can  observe  something  very 
similar  to  it  sometimes,  in  some  forms  of  hypothyroiditis, 
whereas  in  other  cases  this  disability  has  not  yet  become  very 
far  advanced.  It  is  generally  very  difficult  to  separate  these 
twoi  conditions  from  one  another,  because  they  frequently  pass 
into  one  another.  Particularly  in  hypothyroiditis,  that  means 
in  the  chronic,"  benign  weakness  of  the  thyroid  described  by 
Hertoghe,  all  these  symptoms  are  very  seldom  found  in  the  same 
person.  Children  of  such  persons  with  myxedema  manifest 
frequently  the  symptoms  of  congenital  myxedema  or  of  infan- 
tilism, an  inborn  weakness  of  the  sexual  glands.  Very  fre- 
quently they  show  adenoid  vegetations  in  the  nasal  pharynx; 
in  general  the  offspring  of  myxedematous  parents  present  a 
lymphatic  appearance.  In  regard  to  mentality,  children  of 
myxedematous  parents,  even  those  afflicted  only  with  hypo- 
thyroiditis, are  not  well  off;  they  are,  as  a  rule,  backward  in 
their  studies;  we  will  consider  that  subject  later  on  in  a  sep- 
arate chapter.  This  lymphatic  appearance,  as  well  as  the  defi- 
cient bony  framework ;.  the  long,  narrow  chest,  and  the  under- 
development of  the  lungs  which  is  caused  by  it,  expose  these 
children  to  tuberculosis.  In  fact,  PeP  has  very  frequently 
found  tuberculosis  in  the  families  afflicted  with  myxedema. 
We  gain  here  an  insight  into  the  relations  which  exist  between 
tuberculosis  and  mental  diseases,  and  undoubtedly  these  two 
affections  occur  in  the  same  families  quite  frequently. 

That  we  can  attribute  this  disturbance  of  the  thinking  abil- 
ity, in  the  above-mentioned  processes,  to  the  changes  in  the 
thyroid,  is  already  proven  by  the  fact  that  in  most  cases  a 
marked  improvement  of  the  mental  faculties  can  be  noticed 
when  animal  thyroids  are  given  to  the  cretins,  the  idiots,  and 
those  suffering  with  myxedema,  be  it  congenital  or  acquired. 


9  Pel,  P.  K.,  "Myxoedem,"  in  Volkmanns  klin.  Vortragen,  1891. 


28  Human  Intelligence. 


Also  in  a  large  number  of  mental  diseases,  as  we  will  still  con- 
sider later,  a  marked  improvement,  and  often  a  cure,  of  the 
condition  has  been  obtained  by  treatment  with  thyroid.  If, 
however,  the  treatment  of  patients  with  myxedema  is  discon- 
tinued, the  disturbances  again  return,  A  further  confirmation 
we  find  in  the  experimental  fact  that  animals  in  whom  the 
thyroid  has  been  removed,  particularly  when  this  is  done  in 
infancy,  remain  backward  not  only  in  bodily  development,  but 
also  mentally,  and  have  a  stupid  appearance.  Grave  changes 
in  the  central  nervous  system  are  also  taking  place,  particularly 
in  that  part  of  it  to  which  we,  according  to  our  present  state 
of  knowledge,  attribute  the  seat  of  intellectual  faculties,  namely, 
in  the  brain-cortex.  Albertone,  Tizzoni,  and  Walter  Edmimds 
have  found  in  such  animals,  and  WhitwelP*^  found  in  sub- 
jects suffering  from  myxedema,  grave  changes  of  the  nerve- 
cells  in  the  third  and  fourth  layers  of  the  brain-cortex,  chro- 
matolysis,  loss  of  the  processes,  destruction  of  the  nuclei ;  finally 
a  new  formation  of  connective  tissue  takes  place,  which  sub- 
stitutes the  destroyed,  more  delicate  tissues.  We  see  thus  that 
here  a  group  of  gravest  changes  have  taken  place  at  a  point 
where  the  injury  done  (in  case  we  have  to  deal  with  the  high- 
est grade  accompanied  by  the  loss  of  the  nucleus)  cannot  be 
repaired.  In  post-mortem  examinations  of  demented  patients 
changes  in  the  thyroid  and  other  ductless  glands  can,  accord- 
ing to  the  investigations  of  V.  D.  Scheer,  also  be  demonstrated 
microscopically.  He  found, — he  gives  illustrations  of  it  in  his 
recently  published  Thesis  on  Osteomalacia  and  Psychoses, — in 
four  cases  of  mental  disease  very  important  changes  in  the  thy- 
roid gland:  colloid  degeneration,  great  increase  in  connective 
tissue,  papillary  cell  proliferation  in  the  follicles;  in  one  case 
there  was  no  longer  any  colloid  in  it.  He  also  found  changes 
in  the  other  ductless  glands.  What  role  the  thyroid  has,  as 
a  direct  cause  of  mental  changes,  is  seen  in  this  fact,  among 
others,  that  a  number  of  causes,  which  we  consider  as  typical 


10  Whitwell,  British  Med.  Journal,  1897,  Feb.  27. 


Influence  of  the  Glands  of  Internal  Secretion,  29 

for  the  origin  of  mental  diseases,  are  at  the  same  time  consid- 
ered as  particularly  injurious  to  the  activity  of  the  thyroid. 
The  most  important  of  these  are  the  infectious  diseases,  par- 
ticularly lues,  toxic  influences  of  various  kinds,  particularly 
alcohol,  changes  in  the  sexual  glands,  conditions  of  exaltation, 
changes  of  old  age.  In  the  beginning  an  increase  of  activity 
of  these  glands,  with  a  number  of  Basedow-like  symptoms,  may 
be  observed,  but  later  in  the  course  an  exhaustion  of  the  gland, 
even  an  extinguishing  of  the  volcano  takes  place,  and  then  a 
myxedematous  condition  follows,  be  it  a  simple  weakness  of 
the  gland  as  in  hypothyroiditis  or  a  fully  developed  myx- 
edema. Accompanied  with  it  may  also  be  extensive  disturb- 
ances of  the  mental  condition,  as  we  are  able  to  observe  in 
various  kinds  of  mental  diseases. 

Mental  diseases,  as  I  have  pointed  out  in  my  other  pub- 
lications, are  caused,  however,  not  only  by  changes  in  the  thy- 
roid and  sexual  glands,  but  by  changes  in  all  ductless  glands. 
There  exists,  as  it  has  been  established  by  Pineles,^^  Lorand,^^ 
Falta,  Eppinger,  Rudinger,  a  kind  of  correlation  between  the 
various  ductless  glands;  if  one  of  them  is  changed,  the  rest  of 
them,  one  after  another,  become  changed.  Pineles  first  estab- 
lished this  fact  by  clinical  observation  and  the  author  of  this 
book^^  by  experimental  research  in  Professor  Alinkowsky's 
Laboratory.  If  from  an  animal  in  which  diabetes  was  pro- 
duced by  removing  the  pancreas,  the  thyroid  is  removed  and 
examined,  signs  of  overactivity  are  found  in  it.  I  have  also 
shown^^  in  my  later  contributions  that  in  diseases  of  the  duct- 
less glands  we  have  to  deal  not  with  disorders  in  one  of  the 
glands,  but  with  changes  of  a  higher  or  lower  degree  in  all  of 

11  Pineles,  Jahrbuch  der  Wiener  Krankenanstalten,  1897,  Seite  256,  258. 

12  Lorand,  Internationaler  Medizinischer  Kongress,  Madrid,  1903,  und 
das  Altern. 

13  Lorand,  Die  Entstehung  der  Zuckerkrankheit  und  ihre  Beziehungen  zu 
den  Veranderungen  der  Blutdriisen,  Berlin,  1903. 

14  Lorand,  Comptes-rendus  de  la  Societe  de  Biologie  de  Paris,  1904,  und 
Sitzung  der  London  Path.  Society,  1^05,  Febr.  11.  In  Transactions  of  the 
London  Path.  Society,  1905. 


30  Human  Intelligence. 


them.  And  thus  we  find  that  in  mental  diseases  all  ductless 
glands  are  more  or  less  affected,  while  the  starting  point  may- 
be in  one  or  the  other  of  them;  mostly  it  is  the  thyroid  or  the 
sexual  glands,  but  disturbances  in  the  others  follow  one  another 
in  succession,  until  we  find  the  respective  complexity  of  symp- 
toms well  expressed,  so  that  we  frequently  see,  after  changes 
in  the  sexual  glands,  changes  in  the  hypophysis  taking  place. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  find  in  disease  of  the  latter,  in  an  over- 
activity of  it  in  acromegalia  morbid  changes  in  the  sexual 
glands  taking  place,  a  final  ceasing  of  menstruation  very  fre- 
quently, whereby  atrophy  of  the  ovaries  may  be  surmised.  But, 
also,  in  the  thyroid  and  also  in  the  adrenals  changes  may  take 
place.  According  to  my  observations  all  cases  of  acromegalia 
are  associated  with  morbid  changes  in  the  thyroid;  sometimes, 
however,  even  a  large  struma  (goiter),  cannot  be  felt  during 
life,  but  in  a  post-mortem  examination  such  is  found  under  the 
sternum. 

According  to  the  nature  of  the  thyroid  one  can  distinguish 
two  principal  kinds  of  acromegalia,^^  one  grouped  with  symp- 
toms of  Basedow's  disease  and  another  one  with  symptoms  of 
myxedema.  ,  Acromegalia  itself  is  surely  caused  by  changes  of 
the  hypophysis,  namely,  through  overactivity  of  the  latter;  the 
starting  point  may  be  in  the  sexual  glands  or  in  the  thyroid.  In 
cases  of  overactivity  of  the  thyroid  we  sometimes  may  notice 
an  increase  of  intellectual  faculties;  an  example  of  it  I  have 
already  briefly  described.^^  It  was  a  case  with  one  of  my 
friends,  a  lawyer  and  real  estate  owner,  Mr.  S.  G.,  in  Vienna, 
whom  I  was  able  to  observe  during  the  sixteen  years'  duration 
of  his  illness.  The  symptoms  of  acromegalia  appeared  in  that 
patient  after  a  severe  mental  shock;  the  same  etiology  was 
stated  by  PeP^  in  a  case  observed  by  him.     Three  years  later 


15  Lorand,  Neurologische  Sektion  des  Internationalen  Kongresses  zu 
Madrid,  1907. 

1^  Lorand,  Old  Age. 

^'^  Pel,  Ein  Fall  von  Akromegalie  in  Folge  von  Schreck.  Berl.  klin. 
Wochenschrift,  1891,  p.  51. 


Influence  of  the  Glands  of  Internal  Secretion.  31 

diabetes  set  in,  which  very  soon  took  a  grave  course  and  lasted 
over  twelve  years,  which  is  a  very  rare  exception.  The  exami- 
nations of  the  urine  which  I  made  very  frequently  revealed  a 
large  quantity  of  sugar,  axetone,  and  acetic  acid.  During  many 
years  besides  the  severest  headaches  there  had  been  Basedow- 
like  symptoms,  sensation  of  great  heat,  so  that  he  had  to  sleep 
without  covers;  tachycardia,  profuse  sweats,  very  tired  feeling. 
In  later  years  eye-symptoms,  hemianopia,  became  very  notice- 
able, and  finally,  a  few  years  before  he  died,  blindness  set  in. 
I  want  to  emphasize  particularly  that  the  superior  mentality  of 
the  patient,  who  was  a  much-sought  lawyer,  had  during  the  first 
years,  with  the  exception  of  the  times  of  the  severe  attacks  of 
headache,  scarcely  suffered  at  all,  excepting  possibly  that  he 
became  more  conservative  in  his  views,  and  did  not  undertake 
anything  new.  Indeed,  his  ability  of  exercising  sound  judg- 
ment seemed  apparently  to  be  more  increased,  so  that  all  his 
friends,  myself  included,  had  sought  his  opinion  in  all  difficult 
problems,  and  actually  his  advice  was  always  right.  Gibson,^ ^ 
of  Edinburgli,  has  also  noticed  in  one  of  his  patients,  who  was 
afflicted  with  the  disease  for  a  number  of  years,  a  particularly 
great  intelligence.  Moreover,  one  of  our  English  colleagues, 
Dr.  L.  P.  Mark,  who  has  been  affected  with  acromegalia  for 
several  years,  offers  us  a  very  striking  example  in  that  respect. 
In  a  brilliantly  written  monograph  he  describes  for  us  the  his- 
tory of  his  own  illness,  and  Professor  Max  Sternberg,  in  his 
criticism  published  in  November,  1912,  in  the  D.  M.  W.,  praises 
very  highly  the  intellectual  faculties  of  the  author. 

We  see  thus  that  in  cases  of  overactivity  of  the  hypophy- 
sis, as  a  rule,  no  lowering  of  the  mental  faculties  takes  place; 
on  the  contrary,  the  latter  are  unchanged,  and  sometimes  in- 
creased. Indeed,  we  cannot  wonder  at  that,  because  we  know 
that  the  hypophysis  acts  as  a  regulator  of  the  blood  circulation 
as  well  as  of  the  lime  and  phosphor  metabolism,  similar  to 
the  thyroid  gland.     Sometimes,  it  is  true,  when  simultaneously 

18  G.  A.  Gibson,  Edinburgh  Med.  Journal,  1889,  p.  505. 


32  Human  Intelligence. 

symptoms  of  myxedema  are  present,  the  disease  may  exercise 
an  unfavorable  influence  upon  the  mental  condition.  A  similar 
case  which  I  have  observed  was  that  of  an  American  gentle- 
man, who  was  the  chief  of  one  of  the  largest  manufacturing 
plants  in  the  United  States.  His  associates  complained  to  Pro- 
fessor Dercum,  who  directed  the  patient  to  me,  that  the  patient 
interfered  with  the  progress  of  the  business  of  the  large  con- 
cern. He  opposed  all  interventions,  so  that  his  associates  had 
the  greatest  difficulty  in  procuring  new  machinery,  or  advanc- 
ing new  plans  in  conducting  the  business.  The  conservative 
judgment  of  this  patient  had  reached  in  this  case  such  a  degree 
as  to  become  detrimental.  Such  a  case  of  acromegalia  may  set 
in  with  symptoms  of  a  beginning  myxedema,  or  the  cases  with 
Basedow  symptoms  may  be  a  transition  to  it.  In  the  above- 
mentioned  case  the  turbulent  symptoms  have  ceased  in  later 
years,  but  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  patient  was  a  mil- 
lionaire, he  was  very  much  inclined  toward  miserliness.  Of 
course,  avarice  is  a  faculty  which  is  more  liable  to  be  found 
associated  with  conservatism  than  with  the  faculty  of  imagi- 
nation! Those  who  are  blessed  with  a  great  power  of  the 
imagination  are  more  inclined  toward  liberality.  By  this  exam- 
ple we  also  see  how  nearly  the  faculties  of  temperament  and 
mind  are  related. 

Simultaneously  with  slight  disturbance  of  the  thinking  fac- 
ulty in  acromegalia,  there  may  develop  sometimes  true  forms 
of  mental  diseases.  Such  cases  have  been  reported  repeatedly 
within  later  years. 

More  or  less  pronounced  disturbances  of  the  normal  think- 
ing power  may  be  observed  also  in  changes  of  other  ductless 
glands,  the  adrenals,  for  instance,  as  I  was  able  to  observe 
myself  on  some,  either  fully  or  not  quite  fully  developed  cases 
of  Addison's  disease.  In  this  disease  the  most  noticeable  symp- 
tom, besides  the  typical  coloring  of  the  skin,  is  an  enormous 
feeling  of  fatigue.  With  the  great  bodily  fatigue  is  frequently 
present  a  mental  one.     In  the  last  case  of  Addison's  disease 


Influence  of  the  Glands  of  Internal  Secretion.  33 

under  my  treatment,  in  a  gentleman,  Mr.  B.,  from  New  Or- 
leans, in  whom  the  diagnosis  could  be  established  by  the  typi- 
cal coloring  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth  cavity,  I 
found  a  striking  mental  dullness,  the  speed  of  the  thoughts  was 
retarded,  no  interest  whatever  in  the  events  of  the  outside 
world,  weakness  of  memory.  According  to  the  assurance  of 
patient's  wife  these  changes  became  manifest  only  some  time 
after  the  disease  set  in.  In  such  patients  tuberculosis  some- 
times sets  in,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  in  many  cases  of  chronic 
tuberculosis,  frequently  degeneration  of  the  adrenals  may  be 
found  in  advance,  which  is  possibly  manifested  in  some;  tuber- 
cular patients  by  the  appearance  of  pigmentation  of  the  skin. 
This  is,  therefore,  another  proof  of  the  possibility  of  a  relation 
between  tuberculosis  and  mental  diseases.  The  adrenals,  as 
well  as  the  thyroid,  are  organs  of  immunity;  they  protect  us 
against  the  various  infections,  and  I  have  already  called  par- 
ticular attention  ten  years  ago/^  and  later  at  the  Congress  on 
Tuberculosis,  in  Paris,  in  1905,  to  the  important  etiological  role 
of  degeneration  of  the  thyroid  in  the  origin  of  tuberculosis,  a 
view  which,  according  to  recent  literature,  is  at  present  gener- 
ally accepted. 

Generally  speaking,  all  ductless  glands  are  organs  of  de- 
toxication,  the  same  as  the  epithelial  bodies,  the  liver  and  the 
kidneys.  If  these  organs  are  degenerated,  then  we  see  the 
counteraction  of  the  poisons  which  are  not  eliminated  or  de- 
stroyed in  the  system.  Spasms  occur  and  mental  confusion 
takes  place.  The  epithelial  bodies  play  a  great  role  in  the 
origin  of  tetanic  spasms,  and,  according  to  Pineles  and  other 
authors,  also  of  epileptic  and  eclamptic  spasms.  Laignel-Lava- 
stine^^  have  found  changes  in  the  latter  diseases,  also  in  vari- 
ous mental  disorders.  He  reports  eosinophilia  of  the  cells  of 
the  epithelial  bodies  in  a  case  of  senile  dementia,  which  was 


1^  Lorand,   Rapport  de  la  Thyroide  avec  la  Tuberculose  et  le  Cancer, 
Journal  Medical  de  Bruxelles,  1903. 

20  Laignel-Lavastine,  Encephale,  1912,  S.  481. 


34  Human  Intelligence. 


absent  in  other  similar  individuals.  Similarly,  changes  of  the 
liver  may  be  associated  with  mental  diseases.  This  organ 
detoxicates  a  whole  number  of  injurious  substances,  poisons, 
either  coming  from  the  outside  or  originating  within  the  body 
as  waste  product  of  the  metabolism.  In  cases  where  destruc- 
tion of  the  immunizing  liver  tissue  has  taken  place,  not  infre- 
quently mental  disorders  follow ;  for  instance,  I  saw  in  the 
ward  of  Colleague  Seno,  in  Antwerp,  a  maniacal  patient  with 
atrophic  cirrhosis  of  the  liver.  But  in  such  patients  (I  saw 
quite  a  number  in  Carlsbad)  in  whom  cirrhosis  has  lasted  for 
a  long  time,  and  the  organ  has  begun  to  become  smaller,  I 
have  frequently  observed  a  lowering  of  the  thinking  power, 
mental  dullness,  weakness  of  memory,  and  sometimes  great 
agitation,  insomnia. 

If  the  elimination  of  the  various  poisons  originating  in  our 
bodily  economy  cannot  take  place  on  account  of  diseases  of  the 
kidney  tissue,  a  retention  of  them  takes  place.  For  this  rea- 
son, and  particularly  through  the  lack  of  the  immunizing  inner 
secretion  of  the  kidney,  uremic  spasms  with  disturbances  of 
the  consciousness  and  mental  confusions  may  take  place.  In 
course  of  chronic  Bright's  disease,  not  infrequently,  besides 
uremic  attacks,  disturbances  of  the  intellect  occur. 

We  thus  see  that  changes  of  the  intellect  are  in  very  close 
relation  to  changes  in  the  ductless  glands,  and  this  becomes  so 
much  easier  to  understand  when  we  think  that  all  those  func- 
tions, which  according  to  our  present  knowledge,  when  changed, 
may  give  rise  to  mental  diseases,  are  all  regulated  by  the  duct- 
less glands.  In  the  first  place  we  may  mention  here  the  toxins 
of  various  origins.  A\'e  know  from  the  investigations  of  Lugaro 
and  others  that  various  kinds  of  poisons  exercise  an  injurious 
influence  upon  the  cells  of  the  brain-cortex,  and,  through  their 
strong  or  lasting  action,  may  come  more  or  less  grave  changes, 
and  even  injuries  to  the  most  important  component  parts  of  it. 

Against  these  injurious  substances,  whether  they  are  of 
bacterial  origin  or  are  introduced  into  our  body  with  food  or 


Influence  of  the  Glands  of  Internal  Secretion.  35 

drink  (alcohol)  or  in  form  of  medicines,  we  are  protected  by 
the  ductless  glands.  I  have  considered  this  subject  more  in 
detail  in  the  chapter  "On  the  Ductless  Glands,  Their  Influence 
upon  Immunity  Against  Infection  and  Intoxication,"  in  my 
book  on  "Old  Age,"  and  will  not  repeat  it  here.  But  they  pro- 
tect us  also  against  the  poisons  produced  in  our  own  bodies  as 
a  result  of  the  process  of  metabolism.  We  know,  through  the 
work  of  Blum^^  and  the  Japanese  Kishi,^^  that  the  thyroid 
immunizes  the  poisons  of  albumin  metabolism.  Through  its 
activity  the  elimination  of  the  nitrogen  is  increased,  in  the  same 
way  also  uric  acid,  as  I  also  was  able  to  notice  in  my  patients 
whom  I  fed  with  thyroid  extract.     But  the  elimination  of  salt 

is  also  increased,  as  is  seen  from  examination  of  urine  of ,  such 

I 

patients,  and  we  know  that  salt  plays  a  great  role  in  many  pro- 
cesses accompanied  with  disorders  of  mental  activity,  as,  for 
instance,  in  epilepsy. 

The  liver  and  phosphorus  metabolism,  disorders  of  which 
play  a  very  great  role  in  the  origin  of  mental  diseases,  is  also 
regulated  by,  the  activity  of  the  ductless  glands,  but  of  this  sub- 
ject we  will  speak  later  .in  the  book.  Of  particular  importance, 
however,  for  our  consideration  here,  is  the  strong  influence  the 
ductless  glands  have  upon  the  blood-pressure  and  blood-circula- 
tion in  the  brain,  the  importance  of  which  we  pointed  out  in 
the  last  chapter.  The  adrenals,  as  is  known,  by  means  of  the 
secretion  which  they  deliver  to  the  blood,  elevate  blood-pres- 
sure. During  great  mental  irritation  an  excitation  of  the  sym- 
pathetic nerve  takes  place.  This  is  the  main  nerve  of  the 
adrenal,  and  by  its  excitation  an  increased  supply  of  secretion 
into  the  blood  is  produced,  and  thus  an  elevation  of  the  blood- 
pressure.  This  assumption,  which  I  expressed  in  a  paper  pre- 
sented to  the  Royal  Society  of  Brussels  ten  years  ago,^"   has 

21  Blum,  Pfluger's  Archiv,  1902;  Archiv  f.  Physiologic,  1902. 

22  Kishi,  Virchow's  Archiv,  1904. 

23  Lorand,  L'origine  du  Diabete  et  ses  rapports  avec  les  etats  morbides 
de  glandes  vasculaires  sanguines.  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  Royale  des  Sciences 
medicales  et  naturelles,  Bruxelles,  1903;  Deutsch  bei  A.  Hirschwald,  Berlin. 


36  Human  Intelligence. 


recently  been  confirmed  by  exact  experiments  of  Professor 
Asher  in  Berne.  This- produced  elevation  of  blood-pressure  has 
great  influence  upon  the  blood  circulation  in  the  brain,  causing 
a  dilatation  of  the  brain  blood-vessels.  The  secretion  of  the 
hypophysis  also  increases  the  elevation  of  the  blood-pres- 
sure.    Of  great  significance  is  also  the  influence  of  the  thyroid. 

According  to  some  authors,  as,  for  instance,  Oliver  and 
Schaefer,  it  lowers  the  blood-pressure ;  again  according  to  Faltz 
it  elevates.  According  to  my  own  observation  such  an  eleva- 
tion takes  place  only  by  giving  large  doses  of  thyroid.  For  a 
number  of  years  I  have  been  taking  thyroid  at  intervals  to 
learn  its  action  from  personal  experience.  I  was  only  able  to 
observe  that  when  taking  larger  doses  for  some  time  I  obtained 
a  blood-pressure  of  140-150  mm.  measured  after  Riva-Rocci, 
while  in  the  free  intervals  my  blood-pressure  was  120-125  mm. 

According  to  experiments  of  von  Cyon,^'*  reported  in 
Pfliiger's  Archiv,  who  worked  considerably  with  thyroid,  the 
latter  exercises  a  regulating  influence  upon  the  blood  circulation 
in  the  brain. 

If,  then,  disturbances  of  the  thyroid  activity  occur,  dis- 
turbances of  circulation  in  the  brain-vessels  take  place.  This 
may  serve  us  as  a  base  for  a  better  understanding  of  the'  state- 
ment made  in  previous  chapters  about  the  favorable  influence 
which  fever  has  upon  mental  diseases.  In  fever  we  also  have 
an  increased  activity  of  the  thyroid,  and  this  causes  the  destruc- 
tion and  elimination  of  the  toxic  products.^^ 

Of  the  greatest  importance  is  the  powerful  influence  of 
the  thyroid  upon  the  blood  formation.  After  its  removal  we 
observe  in  animals  a  reduction  of  the  red  corpuscles,  and  later 
also  of  the  white  ones.  In  man  also  a  similar  condition  was 
observed  in  degenerative  conditions  of  the  thyroid;  when,  how- 
ever, the  thyroid  extract  was  administered  an  increase  of  the 


2-4  E.  von  Cyon,  Pfluger's  Archiv,  Bd.  li. 

25  Lorand,  Clinical  Observations  on  the  Origin  of  Fever,  Lancet,   1907, 
Nov.,  und  das  Altern  und  seine  Behandlung. 


Influence  of  the  Glands  of  Internal  Secretion,  Z7 

red  blood-corpuscles  took  place.  The  frequently  observed  de- 
crease of  the  number  of  red  corpuscles  in  melancholia  can  be 
attributed  to  it,  and  also  brought  into  connection  with  changes 
in  the  ovaries,  as  the  same  decrease  was  observed  in  animals 
which  were  castrated. 

On  the  other  hand,  Spielmann  and  Etienne^^  were  able 
to  increase  the  number  of  the  red  blood-corpuscles  by  adminis- 
tration of  ovarian  substance.  Very  important  is,  further,  the 
great  influence  which  the  thyroid  has  upon  the  formation  of  the 
elements  of  the  blood  which  form  the  defense  against  infection 
and  other  toxic  substances.  Phagocytosis  is  very  much  influ- 
enced by  an  active  thyroid.  In  the  bacteriology  laboratory  at 
Luttich,  Fassin  found  that  the  alexins  are  wanting  when  the 
thyroid  is  extirpated. 

Sir  A.  Wright,  the  founder  of  the  opsonin  theory,  at- 
tributes to  the  thyroid  the  most  important  role  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  opsonins.  In  the  Pasteur  Institute,  Stepanoff  and 
Merle  could  prove  by  experiments  that  the  opsonins  are  not 
formed'  in  animals  in  which  the  thyroid  was  removed.  On  the 
other  hand,  these  investigators  were  able  to  increase  the  for- 
mation of  opsonin  by  administering  thyroid.  This  confirms  also 
by  experiments  the  theory  advanced  by  myself,  that  fever  is  a 
beneficial  action  of  defense  against  infection,  associated  with  an 
overactivity  of  the  thyroid.  The  good  results  of  hyperleucocy- 
tosis  in  various  kinds  of  mental  diseases,  for  example,  in  a 
great  number  of  paralytics  in  the  Institute  at  Steinhof,  after 
acute  infectious  diseases,  as  reported  by  Wagner,  Piler,  Silber- 
huber,  and  Bedard,  in  the  annual  convention  of  the  German 
Society  of  Psychiatry,  in  all  probability  depend  on  nothing  else 
but  an  increased  activity  of  the  thyroid  caused  by  the  infection. 
From  the  results  of  the  investigations  of  a  number  of  investiga- 
tors, as  Roger,  Garnier,  Torri,  and  others,  we  know  that  the 
thyroid  shows  an  overactivity  with  great  increase  of  the  colloid  ' 


20  Spielmann  und  Etienne,   III    Congres   Frangais   de   Medecine    interne, 
Nancy,  1896,  8  Aug. 


38  Human  Intelligence. 


substance  in  the  follicles,  which  oozes  out  in  quantities  into  the 
surrounding  lymphatics.  And  the  colloid  substance  is  the  active 
product  of  the  thyroid. 

Summing  up  all  statements  made  above,  it  is  apparent  that 
changes  of  the  ductless  glands  play  a  very  great  role  in  the 
origin  of  mental  diseases,  a  fact  to  which  I  called  attention  in 
my  previous  work  years  ago.  The  ductless  glands  dominate  and 
regulate  all  these  functions,  changes  in  which  form  the  direct 
cause  of  mental  disease. 


CHAPTER   III. 

The  Influence  of  the  Nasal  Chambers  upon  the 

Circulatory   Conditions   in   the   Brain   and 

the   Ability    of    Thinking. 

Anyone  who  studies  the  anatomical  conditions  in  the  nose 
closely  must  be  impressed  with  how  richly  the  organ  is  sup- 
plied with  blood.  We  find  here  enormously  developed  venous 
networks  forming  distinct  spongy  bodies,  so  that  in  this  respect 
the  no'se  may  be  compared  with  the  penis.  Moreover,  Vieus- 
sens,^  many  centuries  ago,  pointed  out  the  similarity  of  this 
venous  plexus  in  the  nose  to  that  found  in  one  of  the  con- 
stituent parts  of  the  female  reproductive  apparatus,  the  placenta. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  nature  in  all  her  creations  acts 
with  admirable  ingenuity,  it  must  be  assumed  that  in  this  pe- 
culiar construction  of  such  a  small  organ  she  has  pursued  a 
special  purpose.  Up  to  the  present  time  it  has  been  mostly 
assumed  that  the  rich  blood-supply  serves  the  purpose  of  warm- 
ing up  the  cold  air  which  entered  through  the  nasal  openings. 
I  am  convinced  that  this  view  is  an  erroneous  one,  because,  in 
the  first  place,  it  is  a  fact  that  the  main  stream  of  air  does  not 
pass  at  all  through  the  inferior  nasal  channel,  in  which  most  of 
the  blood-vessels  are  situated,  a~  fact  which  was  particularly 
brought  out  by  Zarniko^  in  the  description  of  the  anatomy  of 
the  nose  in  his  textbook  on  diseases  of  that  organ.  On  the 
other  hand,  such  a  warming  up  of  the  air  would  only  find  its 
application  with  respect  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  cold  regions, 
and  even  in  those  only  during  certain  seasons  of  the  year.  In 
the  inhabitants  of  southern  countries  or  of  the  tropics  such  an 
extravagant  supply  of  blood-vessels  would,  from  the  point  of 
view  stated  above,  have  no  sense  at  all.    To  my  knowledge,  the 


1  Vieussens,  Neurog.  Univ.,  lib.  i,  cap.  xvi. 

2  Zarniko,  Lehrbuch  der  Krankheiten  der  Nase,  VI  Auflage,  1913. 

(39) 


40  Human  Intelligence. 


noses  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  tropics  are  in  no  way  less  richly 
supplied  with  blood-vessels.  Moreover,  I  would  like  to  call 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  blood-vessels  in  the  nose  are  almost 
all  only  of  the  venous  kind,  and  that  there  are  very  few  arterial 
vessels  present. 

This  rich  supply  of  venous  blood-vessels  must,  therefore, 
have  another  purpose,  and  when  one  studies  the  anatomical 
conditions  in  the  nose  more  closely  a  highly  significant  fact  is 
observed,  namely,  that  the  venous  network  in  the  nose  anasto- 
moses or  intercommunicates  with  the  venous  network  of  the 
brain-membranes  by  means  of  the  ethmoidal  veins.  The  latter, 
the  V.  ethmoidalis  anterior  and  posterior,  enter  the  cavity  of 
the  skull  through  the  foramen  anterior  and  posterior  and  then 
enter  into  the  venous  network  of  the  dura  and  pia  mater;  par- 
ticularly to  be  mentioned  is  also  the  vein  of  Zuckerkandl, 
which  accompanies  a  side  branch  of  the  ethmoid  artery.  Be- 
sides, there  exist  connections  of  the  circulation  in  the  nose  with 
the  blood-sinuses;  for  instance,  with  the  longitudinal  sinus.  I 
am  also  of  the  opinion  that  the  finer  diploic  veins  located  in  the 
bones  forming  the  border  line  between  the  nose  and  the  cavity 
of  the  skull  are  not  without  significance  in  the  formation  of 
anastomoses  between  the  circulation  in  the  nose  and  the  skull. 

So  much  is  certain,  that  between  these  two  venous  net- 
works, the  upper  one  at  the  brain  and  the  lower  one  in  the  nose, 
there  must  exist  some  relation,  and  it  is  surely  a  clinical  expres- 
sion of  this  relation  when,  in  a^  case  of  congestive  hyperemia  of 
the  brain,  nose-bleeding  occurs.  This,  for  example,  occurs  after 
mental  strain  or  in  a  suppression  of  menses,  in  typhoid  fever, 
etc. 

We  can  also  make  the  interesting  observation  that  pre- 
viously existing  headaches,  no  matter  how  severe  they  may  have 
been,  will  disappear  after  such  a  nose-bleeding.  We  may  justly 
consider  the  occurrence  of*  nose-bleeding  in  these  conditions, 
similar  to  other  symptoms  in  disease,  as  an  expression  of  a 
self-restoring  attempt  of  the  organism.     It  is  a  rational  basis 


Influence  of  the  Nasal  Chambers.  41 

for  our  therapeutic  interference  when  we  follow  such  indica- 
tions given  us  by  nature,  and  try  to  imitate  them  by  attempt- 
ing to  create  similar  symptoms  with  our  therapeutic  measures. 
When,  therefore,  congestions  of  the  brain  and  severe  headaches 
usually  disappear  after  copious  bleeding  from  the  nose,  it  would 
be  rational  to  produce  such  bleeding  artificially.  At  present, 
however,  venesections — possibly  unjustly — are  not  in  use.  We 
prefer  nowadays  to  use  the  bloodless  methods,  such  as  strong 
purging,  sweating,  etc.  According  to  my  experience  we  can 
use  in  the  nose  similar  means,  by  applying  snuff  remedies,  which 
will  irritate  the  nasal  mucous  membrane  and  produce  copious 
discharge  from  the  nose.  I  have  actually  succeeded  in  such 
cases,^  orij  myself  as  well  as  on  a  number  of  patients,  in  mak- 
ing the  most  severe  headaches  entirely  disappear  by  such  means ; 
the  more  copious  the  discharge  the  better  was  the  result.  Once 
I  suffered  from  an  attack  of  very  severe  migraine  of  the  right 
side  with  excessive  headache;  after  using  a  snuff  powder  with 
o.io  veratrine,  I  began  to  sweat  violently  and  a  very  profuse 
discharge,  v/hich  was  almost  pure  water,  came  from  the  nose; 
undoubtedly  that  watery  fluid  was  extracted  from  the  blood, 
and  I  thus  drained  off  blood  through  the  nose,  receiving  a  reac- 
tion similar  to  the  one  which  takes  place  in  spontaneous  nose- 
bleeding  in  congestive  conditions  In  the  brain.  But,  besides 
draining  off  blood,  I  also  drained  off  lymph,  and  from  the 
investigations  of  Key  and  Retzius*  we  know  that  close  rela- 
tions exist  between  the  lymph-vessels'  of  the  nose  and  those  of 
the  brain-cavities.  The  old  Master  of  Medicine,  Vieussens,^  in 
his  discourse  of  the  anatomic-histologic  relations  in  the  nasal 
mucous  membrane,  which  he  described  as  a  net-like  membrane 
with  innumerable  fine  openings,  also  mentions  that  these  open- 
ings are  there  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  lymph.    In  man, 


3  Lorand,  Munchener  med.  Wochenschrift,  8  Okt.,  1912. 

4  I^ey  und  Retzius,  Studien  iiber  Anat.  des  Nervensystems  und  Binde- 
gewebes  I.     Stockholm,  1875. 

5  Vieussens,  Neurog.  Univ.,  lib.  i,  cap.  xvi. 


42  Human  Intelligence. 


however,  as  has  been  shown  by  experiments,  the  lymph  with- 
drawn from  the  brain  does  not  come  out  through  the  nose  in 
such  quantities  as  in  animals,  but  it  is  best  withdrawn  by  means 
of  lumbar  puncture.  The  normal  secretion  of  the  nose  contains 
some  lymph,  although  not  much,  but  it  is  probable  that  not 
inconsiderable  quantities  of  lymph  may  be  removed  through  the 
nose  when  the  secretion  from  the  nose  is  very  abundant  and  it 
thus  becomes  possible  to  attribute  the  disappearance  of  headache 
after  profuse  nasal  discharge  not  only  to  the  diversion  of  blood 
from  circulation  in  the  brain,  but  also  of  lymph.  That  head- 
aches of  great  severity  may  be  made  to  disappear  by  nasal  dis- 
charge is  evident  from  observation  of  persons  suffering  from 
cerebral  tumors.  If  in  such  patients  a  nasal  discharge  sets  in 
(this  can  be  produced  by  administering  large  doses  of  iodine), 
the  headaches,  no  matter  how  severe  they  may  be,  usually  dis- 
appear. When,  however,  the  discharge  ceases,  headaches  will 
after  awhile  reappear.  Frequently  reported  cases  of  brain-tu- 
mors and  meningitis,  in  which  improvement  was  obtained  after 
administration  of  large  quantities  of  potassium  iodide,  may  find 
their  explanation  in  the  suggestions  made  above.  Moreover, 
Michael  Braun,^  the  discoverer  of  the  vibration  massage  of  the 
nose,  reports  that  he  succeeded  in  curing  various  kinds  of  most 
violent  headaches,  as,  for  instance,  migraine  in  malaria,  by 
administration  of  nasal  vibratory  massage.  Two  of  his  cases 
of  most  violent  headache  in  malaria  were  previously  treated  for 
a  long  time  with  quinine,  arsenic  and  other  remedies  without 
the  slightest  favorable  result,  and  only  the  nasal  massage  treat- 
ment made  them  disappear.  The  result  can  only  be  explained 
by  the  favorable  influence  exercised  by  massage  upon  the  blood 
circulation  in  the  nose  and  the  nasal  discharge  which  is  caused 
by  it.  The  three  methods  of  treatment  of  headaches  by  acting 
upon  the  nose,  namely,  (i)  my  method  of  direct  irritation  of 
the  nasal  mucous  membrane  by  chemical  means;  (2)  the  internal 
treatment  with  potassium  iodide,   and    (3)    Braun's  treatment 

CM.  Braun,  Deutscher  Naturforscher  Kongress,  Aachen,  1900. 


Influence  of  the  Nasal  Chambers.  43 

with  nasal  massage,  can  all  act  only  through  the  same  agency, 
namely,  by  improving  the  blood-  and  lymph-  circulation  in  the 
nose.  The  result  is  an  increased  influx  of  blood  toward  the 
nose  from  above,  namely,  from  the  venous  network  of  the  nose. 
An  incitement  of  nasal  secretion  takes  place  with  escaping  of 
blood  and  lymph  fluid,  which  is  withdrawn  from  the  circulation 
in  the  brain.  Owing  to  this  discharge,  the  pressure  in  the  brain 
disappears  and  the  headaches  cease.  This  may  probably  throw 
some  light  upon  the  etiology  and  nature  of  headaches,  and  based 
upon  the  suggestion  made  above  we  may  attribute  the  origin  of 
headache  in,  many  cases  to  the  increase  of  pressure  in  the  brain 
in  consequence  of  disturbances  of  blood-  and  lymph-  circulation. 
The  disappearance  of  headache  after  nasal  treatment  may  be 
explained  by  the  produced  relief  of  the  brain  pressure  through 
draining  off  the  blood-  and  lymph-  circulation  toward  the  nose. 
The  action  upon  the  nose  causes  an  increase  of  blood-flow 
toward  it;  this  increased  quantity  of  blood  is  taken  away  from 
the  upper  venous  plexus,  that  is,  from  the  plexus  of  the  brain- 
membranes,  and  conducted  to  the  lower  plexus,  to  that  of  the 
nose.  Headaches  may  frequently  be  caused  by  the  disturbance 
of  th©  equilibrium  between  those  two  plexuses. 

For  the  correctness  of  this  view  speaks  the  fact  that  just 
as  headaches  may  arise  through  disturbances  of  the  blood-cir- 
culation in  the  upper  plexus,  for  instance,  in  congestive  hyper- 
emia, and  then  cease  when  the  path  downward  becomes  open 
through  nasal  bleeding,  so  it  can,  on  the  other  hand,  be  pro- 
duced by  disturbances  in  the  circulation  in  the  lower  plexus, — 
in  that  of  the  nose.  This  we  see  clearly  proved  by  the  fre- 
quency of  headaches  in  protracted  hypertrophic  processes  of  the 
nasal  mucous  membrane,  in  dryness  of  the  nose,  in  stagnation 
and  retention  of  the  nasal  secretions,  and  in  the  highest  degree 
in  obstruction  of  the  nasal  openings.  The  most  severe  head- 
aches undoubtedly  arise  when  it  becomes  necessary  after  opera- 
tions to  introduce  a  tampon  into  the  nose  and  leave  it  there  for 
some  length  of  time. 


Human  Intelligence. 


Headaches  are  therefore  caused  by  two  main  factors:  (i) 
Disturbance  of  the  blood-  and  lymph-  circulation  in  the  region 
of  the  brain,  in  the  dura  and  pia  mater.  (2)  Disturbance  of 
the  blood-  and  lymph-  circulation  in  the  nose,  which  arrests  the 
normal  secretory  functions  of  the  nasal  mucous  membranes. 

The  nose  is  somezvhat  of  an  unloading  organ  for  the  hrain, 
as  it  were.  HyrtF  called  it  the  respiratory  cavity  for  the  brain, 
and  it  would  probably  not  be  inappropriate,  if,  after  all  that  has 
been  said,  we  should  consider  it  also  a  circulatory  cavity.  All 
the  above  suggestions  answer  the  original  question  in  regard  to 
the  object  of  the  presence  of  such  a  huge  venous  plexus  in  the 
nose.  We  should  consider  it  as  a  safety-valve  which  is  designed 
to  prevent  the  blood  circulation  in  the  brain  from  becoming  too 
much  overtaxed.  In  congestive  hyperemia  of  the  brain  it  may 
happen  that  the  blood  streams  toward  the  nose  and  the  latter 
becomes  swollen.  This  we  can  observe,  for  instance,  after  ex- 
cessive use  of  alcohol,  and  this  may  also  explain  the  cases  of 
nervous  colds  In  the  head  as  well  as  the  swelling  of  the  nasal 
mucous  membrane  in  cases  of  women  suffering  from  dysmen- 
orrhea and  amenorrhea.  I  have,  moreover,  for  the  sake  of 
experiment,  produced  such  a  swelling  of  the  nasal  mucous 
membrane  in  myself  by  taking  very  hot  baths  of  35  degrees  F. 
After  remaining  in  such  a  bath  over  20  minutes  I  was  no 
longer  able  to  breathe  through  the  nose,  but  had  to  breathe 
through  the  mouth.  I  also  had  a  pressure  sensation  in  the  head, 
a  feeling  of  heaviness  and  stupidity,  and  was  unfit  to  do  any 
kind  of  thinking.  After  taking  a^  snuff,  secretion  from  the  nose 
set  in,  and  after  the  swelling  decreased  the  nasal  passages  again 
became  free.  Simultaneously  with  it  the  heavy  feeling  in  the 
head  disappeared  and  I  was  able  to  think  clearly.  This  rapid 
improvement  of  the  thinking  capacity  I  could  attribute  only  to 
the  improvement  of  the  blood  circulation  in  the  brain  which 
took  place  right  after  using  the  snuff.    We  have  mentioned  that 


■7  Hyrtl,  Lehrbuch  der  Anatomie  des  Menschen,  Wien,  1882,  XVI  Aufl., 
S.  569. 


Influence  of  the  Nasal  Chambers.  45 

circulatory  disturbances  of  the  brain  are,  as  a  rule,  also  fol- 
lowed by  disturbances  of  consciousness.  Thus,  for  instance,  we 
see  in  anemia  of  the  brain  a  loss  of  consciousness,  even  to 
fainting;  in  blood-congestion,  on  the  other  hand,  as  for  instance 
after  alcohol  excesses  or  after  acute  diseases  associated  with 
fever,  we  may  observe  not  only  the  setting  in  of  violent  head- 
aches, but  also  delirium.  After  a  profuse  nasal  bleeding,  how- 
ever, the  delirium  ceases  and  consciousness  returns.  Similarly 
we  observed  that  in  old  men  suffering  from  sclerosis  of  the 
brain-vessels  and  complaining  of  pressure  and  heavy  feeling  in 
the  head  and  inability  to  think  clearly,  this  condition  soon  dis- 
appears when  spontaneous  nose-bleeding  or  cold  in  the  head 
with  profuse  discharge  takes  place.  The  patients  feel  lighter 
in  the  head  and  think  more  clearly.  It  would  indeed  be  very 
desirable  if  this  spontaneous  indication  of  nature  were  followed 
up  and,  in  treating  such  patients,  the  draining  of  blood  and 
lymph  through  the  nose  were  made  use  of.  Moreover,  we  are 
also  able,  as  mentioned,  to  cause  profuse  nasal  secretions  by 
administering  potassium  iodide.  This  leads  us  also  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  cold  in  the  head  following  the  partaking  of 
potassium  iodide  is  only  a  salutary  manifestation,  which  should 
not  be  combated  as  some  irrationally  thinking  physicians  do. 

That  we  are  able  to  improve  the  capacity  for  thinking  by 
acting  upon  the  nose  is  also  illustrated  by  the  experience  that 
in  case  of  stupefaction  of  the  brain,  as  for  instance  in  coma, 
we  are  able  to  restore  the  consciousness,  even  if  it  is  only  for 
a  short  time,  by  administering  such  strong-smelling  substances 
as  ammonia  and  ether.  This  is  undoubtedly  connected  with  the 
inciting  influence  which  these  smelling  substances  have  upon  the 
blood-  and  lymph-  circulation  in  the  nose,  and  farther  on  in  the 
brain.  Possibly  we  could  obtain  still  better  results  in  such  con- 
ditions, and  maybe  also  in  some  forms  of  psychosis,  by  blood 
detraction  from  the  nose,  or  by  causing  profuse  nasal  discharge. 
Dr.  Sano  has  informed  me  that  in  three  cases  of  maniacal  exal- 
tation he  actually  obtained   improvement  with  this  treatment 


46  Human  Intelligence. 


which  I  had  recommended  several  months  previously.  He  ad- 
ministered every  time  some  veratrine  to  cause  sneezing.  The 
improvement  of  the  thinking  power  by  acting  through  the  nose 
is  therefore  produced  by  the  same  therapeutic  agency  which  also 
cured  the  headache,  namely,  through  improvement  of  the  cir- 
culation of  the  brain.  Just  as  disorders  of  thinking  ability  may 
be  improved  by  improving  the  blood-  and  lymph-  circulation  in 
the  nose,  so  such  disorders  can  also  be  produced  artificially  by 
making  the  circulatory  conditions  worse.  This  becomes  most 
evident  when,  after  operations,  the  nose,  as  mentioned  above, 
is  stopped  up  by  the  tampons,  and,  after  an  hour  or  two,  a 
total  inability  to  think  ensues.  The  same  may  be  observed  in 
a  slighter  degree  in  every  case  of  cold  in  the  head.  One  is 
unable  to  think,  nay,  hardly  fit  to  do  so;  at  any  rate,  clear 
thinking  is  difficult.  Similar  conditions  exist  in  hypertrophic 
processes  of  long  standing  in  the  nose.  In  children  suffering 
from  adenoids  similar  conditions  have  been  observed  by  the 
Danish  authors  who  first  described  this  affection.  Such  chil- 
dren grasp  everything  with  more  difficulty,  and  the  expression 
of  their  faces  has  the  sign  of  stupidity.  Also,  in  adults  affected 
that  way,  Guye  described  an,  inability  to  think.  They  could  not 
concentrate  their  attention  upon  one  subject,  which  was  par- 
ticularly noticeable  in  the  study  of  mathematics.  Mathematics 
is  really  that  study  which  requires  the  greatest  acuteness  of 
mind.  It  is,  at  any  rate,  significant  that  Guye^  succeeded  in 
relieving  this  condition,  which  he  named  aprosexia  nasalis,  by 
treating  the  nose  and  removing  the  adenoids,  and  so  improved 
the  thinking  faculty  of  his  patients,  mostly  high-school  pupils, 
to  such  an  extent  that  they  made  better  progress  in  mathe- 
matics. Kafeman^  also  found  a  reduction  of  the  mentality  in 
subjects  suffering  from  diseased  narrowness  of  the  respiratory 
passages  in  the  nose,  as  long  as  obstructions  existed.  That 
even  mental  diseases  may  originate  from  the  presence  of  ade- 


8  Guye,  Kongress  Deutscher  Naturforscher  und  Aerzte,  1887  und  1888. 

9  Nach  Zarniko  zitiert. 


Influence  of  the  Nasal  Chambers.  47 

noid  vegetations  is  known;  such  cases  I  have  seen  frequently 
in,  insane  asylums. 

That  by  use  of  snuffing  powder  which  causes  sneezing,  the 
thinking  becomes  more  acute  is  anyhow  the  popular  belief,  and 
it  is  probably  not  only  a  blind  coincidence  that  just  at  the  time 
when  the  greatest  thinkers  have  lived  in  Germany  and  France 
the  snuffing  habit  was  in  vogue ;  at  least  this  is  reported  toi  have 
been  the  habit  of  such  great  minds  as  Kant,  Voltaire,  Napoleon, 
Frederick  the  Great,  and  others. 

In  view  of  the  facts  described  above  it  would  probably  be 
advisable  to  use  the  nose  as  a  relief  organ  for  the  brain  in  con- 
gestive conditions  of  the  latter,  as  I  have  already  suggested  in 
my  communications  in  the  Milnch.  med.  Wochenschrift  (8th 
Oct.,  1912).  In  draining  off  the  blood  through  the  nose  by 
scarification  of  the  nasal  blood-vessels,  or,  also,  by  using  snuff- 
ing remedies  containing  veratrine  in  small  quantities,  or  more 
harmless  soap-bark  or  thymol,  we  are  able  to  drain  off  blood 
and  lymph  by  profuse  nasal  discharge,  which  may  be  of  great 
benefit  in  some  diseases  of  the  brain  and  brain-membranes.  But 
this  could  also  be  used  with  success  in  cases  of  more  serious 
mental  diseases,  such  as  maniacal  exaltations  or  simple  confu- 
sion due  to  too  great  fullness  of  the  brain-vessels.  Also  in  cases 
of  some  brain-tumors,  -  in  optic  neuritis,  in  diseases  of  the  optic 
nerve,  as  well  as  inner  organs  of  vision  in  general,  such  drain- 
age may  be  effective.  At  any  rate,  all  mentioned  above  makes 
very  clear  the  great  significance  of  that  small  but  so  frequently 
neglected  organ,  the  nose.  The  latter,  indeed,  stands  in  very 
intimate  relation  with  and  exercises,  as  we  have  seen,  an  enor- 
mous influence  upon  that  other  most  precious  organ,  by  the 
structure  of  which  alone  man  differs  from  an  animal, — upon  the 
brain.  The  nose  is  somewhat  of  a  protecting  organ  for  the 
brain. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

The  Influence  of  Metabolism  upon  the  Faculty 
OF  Thinking. 

It  has  long,  been  assumed  that  the  process  of  metabolism 
exerts  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  central  nervous  system. 
Its  influence  upon  the  mental  condition  is  known,  and  is  very 
distinctly  noticeable  in  diabetes  and  obesity.  Even  such  mental 
diseases  as  melancholia,  and  other  mental  disorders  as  well,  may 
not  rarely  be  caused  by  disturbances  of  metabolism. 

Everything  which  disturbs  metabolism  may  also  influence 
the  sphere  of  thinking.  So  we  find  obesity  in  many  instances 
associated  with  a  phlegmatic  mentality.  Upon  most  variable 
stimuli  which  act  upon  the  nervous  system,  the  latter  reacts 
slowly;  thinking  is  retarded  and  manifests  itself  in  hesitating 
speech ;  questions  are  answered  only  after  a  pause,  without  those 
answers  being  made  more  intelligently  or  more  acute.  In  many 
such  cases  there  is  a  true  mental  laziness.  This  should  not  sur- 
prise us  when  we  remember  that  a  condition  of  weakness  of  the 
thyroid  (hypothyroidia)  is  frequently  present.  These  cases  I 
have  designated  in  my  older  contributions  as  endogenic  obesity. 
It  is  not  caused  by  excessive  eating;  frequently  persons  so 
affected,  particularly  women  in  whom  such  conditions  occur,  eat 
very  little;  as  a  rule,  even  too  little.^  The  speech  is  entirely 
different  in  persons  suffering  from  the  opposite  condition, — the 
overactivity  of  the  thyroid  in  Basedow's  disease.  Here  it  is 
precipitated,  actually  overflowing.  Similar  conditions  we  may 
also  observe  in  hysteria,  where,  in  addition  to  changes  in  the 
ovaries,  the  activity  of  the  thyroid  may  be  frequently  increased. 
Basedow's  disease  is  also  considered  as  a  disease  of  metabolism, 
because  the  latter  is  generally  changed,  namely,  increased.    Here 


1  Lorand,  Old  Age. 
(48) 


Influence  of  Metabolism.  49 

also  there  is  frequently  present  a  derangement  of  the  normal 
thinking  power,  which  may  frequently  develop  into  a  mental 
disease. 

In  close  connection  with  Basedow's  disease  is  diabetes,  in 
which,  according  to  my  investigations,  an  increased  activity  of 
the  thyroid,  as  is  now  generally  confirmed,  plays  an  important 
role.  It  is  very  interesting  that,  as  I  particularly  pointed  out,^ 
diabetes  most  frequently  occurs  among  the  more  intelligent  class, 
as,  for  instance,  among  physicians,  diplomats,  statesmen,  etc., 
where  exciting  mental  activity  offers  the  most  frequent  con- 
tributing cause.  The  great  majority  of  diabetics  are  nervous, 
as  I  have  observed  in  many  hundreds  of  patients  during  my 
nineteen  years  of  practice  in  Carlsbad.  I  observed  them  during 
the  season  daily,  and  in  many  of  them  I  noticed  all  along  a 
high  degree  of  intelligence.  It  is  true,  they  were  mostly  cases 
of  mild  character,  in  which  the  sugar  in  the  urine  soon  disap- 
peared after  proper  diet,  and  in  which  acetone  and  acetic  acid 
had  not  appeared  as  yet.  In  cases  where  the  latter  made  their 
appearance,  therefore  in  grave  cases,  I  could  observe,  as  a  rule, 
a  lowering  of  thinking  power,  a  real  apathy  toward  thinking. 
Such  individuals  have  great  difficulty  in  noticing  some  things 
and  impressing  them  in  their  memory.  As  soon  as  a  case  of 
mild  character  becam.e  a  grave  one  and  acetone  and  acetic  acid 
had  appeared  in  the  urine,  I  was  able  to  find  a  lowering  of 
thinking  ability,  and  this  I  was  able  to  observe  in  individuals 
who,  one  or  two  years  previously,  during  the  existence  of  the 
mild  form  of  the  disease,  manifested  high  intelligence.  For  an 
explanation  of  this  I  would  like  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
individuals  suffering  from  the  grave  form  of  diabetes  manifest 
a  number  of  symptoms  of  weakness  of  the  thyroid,  similar  to 
myxedema,  as  I  have  pointed  out  already  in  a  number  of  my 
publications  and  in  my  books  on  diabetes.  In  cases  where  I 
succeeded  by  thyroid  treatment  in  removing  the  acetonuria,  the 


2  Lorand,    Die    rationelle    Behandlung    der    Zuckerkrankheit,    II    Aufl. 
Berlin,  1909. 


50  Human  Intelligence. 


intelligence  improved  very  markedly,  apathy  disappeared,  and 
the  patients  became  mentally  brighter  and  quicker. 

It  would  probably  help  to  a  better  understanding  when  I 
point  out  here  that  I  attribute  the  transition  of  the  mild  form 
into  the  grave  one  to  the  exhaustion  of  the  thyroid  after  a  pre- 
ceding overactivity  of  it.  In  milder  forms  of  diabetes  the 
activity  of  the  thyroid  is  increased  and  frequently  associated 
with  great  nervousness  and  very  lively  thinking  power.  In 
grave  cases  the  former  is  diminished  and  is  associated  with 
apathy  and  more  retarded  thinking,  decrease  of  memory  for 
recent  occurrences  and  lack  of  initiative.  Such  patients  are  fre- 
quently helpless  in  their  form  of  thinking,  and,  due  to  the  ab- 
sence of  will-power,  everything  has  to  be  done  for  them.  Every- 
one who  has  an  opportunity  to  observe  many  grave  cases  of 
diabetes  will  agree  with  me  in  this  respect. 

Furthermore,  the  occurrence  of  mental  diseases  in  diabetes 
is  not  rare,  and  frequently  they  occur  also  in  families  of  dia- 
betics and  in  their  offspring.  Children  of  diabetics  are  fre- 
quently very  nervous,  but  at  the  same  time  very  intelligent,  as 
I  pointed  out  ten  3rears  ago.^ 

Savage^,  calls  attention  to  a  remarkable  interrelation  be- 
tween diabetes  and  mental  diseases.  When  a  mental  disease 
becomes  manifest  the  sugar  content  in  the  urine  is  reduced,  and 
it  increases  with  the  improvement  of  the  mental  disease.  He 
observed  a  case  of  this  kind  in  a  woman  with  melancholia. 
Similar  observations  have  also  been  made  in  gout,  particularly 
by  the  great  investigator  of  the  gout — Garrod.  He  observed 
frequently  an  improvement  of  the  melancholia  during  an  attack 
of  gout,  but  when  the  attack  of  gout  subsided,  after  using  vari- 
ous antigout  remedies,  violent  mental  symptoms  set  in. 

A  much  more  important  role  than  that  of  sugar  as  an 
etiological  factor  in  origin  of  mental  diseases  is  attributed  (par- 
ticularly by  English  authors)   to  uric  acid.     The  presence  of 


3  Lorand,  The  Practitioner,  London,  1903. 

4  Savage,  Address  on  Mental  Disorders,  Lancet,  1912. 


Influence  of  Metabolism.  51 

large  quantities  of  uric  acid  in  the  blood  exercises,  according 
to  Haig,^  a  very  unfavorable  influence  upon  the  emotions  and 
spirit.  That  a  feeling  of  depression  in  such  a  condition,  with 
influence  upon  the  thinking  ability,  may  easily  occur,  we  can 
generally  agree.  In  migraine  there  also  exists,  as  a  rule,  an 
entire  inability  to  think.  According  to  many  authorities  this 
condition  originated  on  the  basis  of  uric  acid  diathesis.  So 
much  is  certain  that  during  an  attack  of  migraine  large  quanti- 
ties of  uric  acid  are  found  in  the  urine,  but  also  much  phos- 
phorus. Phosphorus  and  lime,  which  are  contained  as  very 
important  elements  in  all  our  nerve-cells,  are  eliminated  fre- 
quently in  large  quantities  in  various  diseases  of  metabolism, 
as,  for  instance,  in  diabetes,  Basedow's  disease  and  acromegalia. 
The  disturbance  of  thinking  ability,  then,  which  very  frequently 
occurs  in  such  diseases,  may  be  attributed,  in  addition  to  the 
changes  of  the  ductless  glands,  also  to  lime  and  phosphorus 
metabolism. 


5  A.  Haig,  Uric  Acid  in  Causation  of  Disease,  London,  6th  edition,  1903. 


CHAPTER   V. 

The  Influence  of  Lime  and  Phosphorus  Metabolism 

UPON  THE  Faculty  of  Thinking  and  the 

Origin  of  Mental  Diseases. 

Reports  have  been  made,  many  years  ago,  that  fractures 
are  a  frequent  occurrence  among  the  insane.  In  most  instances 
this  was  attributed  to  supposed  brutal  treatment  by  inhuman 
attendants.  From  the  investigations  made  in  later  years,  how- 
ever, it  seems  probable  that  in  such  cases  it  was  a  matter  not 
so  much  of  actions  of  brutal  attendants  as  of  an  abnormal 
fragility  of  the  bones  of  some  insane.  They  break  off  on  the 
slightest  provocation,  and  at  post-mortem  examinations  they 
can  be  cut  with  a  knife  almost  like  paper.  Apparently  we  have 
here  a  condition  which  has  been  observed,  up  to  the  present, 
mostly  in  pregnant  women,  namely,  a  softening  of  the  bones, 
or  osteomalacia.  Now,  as  it  is  very  clearly  seen  from  a  large 
and  thorough  treatise  by  the  Dutch  physician  Scheer,^  this  mor- 
bid condition  is  not  at  all  a  rare  occurrence  in  the  insane.  What 
characterizes  osteomalacia  is  the  fact  that  the  bones  are  very 
poor  in  lime-salts.  The  latter,  and  the  phosphorus  as  well,  are 
eliminated  in  large  quantities.  To  positively  exclude  mistaking 
this  condition  for  osteoporosis,  a  condition  observed  in  bones  of 
old  people,  the  bones  must  be  rontgenized.  When  Rontgen  rays 
pass  through  a  normal  bone,  there  appears  an  opaque  shadow. 
The  more  lime  a  bone  contains  the  denser  will  be  the  shadow; 
the  less  of  lime  there  is  in  it  the  more  transparent  will  the  bone 
be.  Such  a  light  shadow  we  find  in  conditions  where  the  bones 
are  poor  in  lime-salts,  as,  for  instance,  in  tuberculosis.  I  would 
consider  it  a  proper  procedure  that  the  skeleton  of  all  scrofu- 
lous children  and  children  of  tuberculous  parents  should  be 
rontgenized — in  order  to  get  an  idea  in  regard  to  their  pre- 


1  Von  d.  Scheer,  Osteomalacic  en  Psychose.    Amsterdam,  1912. 
(52) 


Influence  of  Lime  and  PhospJwrus  Metabolism.  53 

disposition  to  tuberculosis.  At  any  rate,  such  a  slight  shadow 
as  here  mentioned  will  frequently  be  found. 

When  bones  of  individuals  suffering  from  osteomalacia  are 
rontgenized,  no  shadow  at  all  is  obtained,  because,  on  account 
of  their  being  poor  in  lime-salts,  the  Rontgen  rays  pass  through 
entirely. 

Von  d.  Scheer  has  observed  in  two  years  and  a  half  ten 
very  typical  and  circumscribed  cases  of  osteomalacia.  In  most 
of  them  the  diagnosis  was  also  confirmed  by  Rontgen  pictures 
and  post-mortem  examinations. 

Undoubtedly,  however,  this  disease,  in  a  milder  degree, 
occurs  much  more  frequently,  but  the  recognition  of  it  is  much 
more  difficult,  because  many  of  the  insane  patients  are  sitting 
all  day  brooding'  by  themselves,  and  when  they  happen  to  suffer 
great  pain  they  complain  to  the  attendants  and  accuse  them  of 
being  the  cause. 

From  a  foregoing  statement  we  learn  that  in  some  cases 
of  mental  disturbance  much  lime  and  phosphorus  are  eliminated 
by  the  body.  We  know,  moreover,  that  both  substances  are 
frequently  eliminated  irom  the  body  in  large  quantities  in  vari- 
ous disturbances  of  the  nervous  system,  as,  for  instance,  in  hys- 
teria and  neurasthenia,  and  in  Basedow's  disease.  But  in  these 
conditions  very  frequently  exist  disturbances  of  free  thinking 
ability,  such  as  abnormal  exaltations,  absent-mindedness,  inabil- 
ity to  concentrate  attention,  abnormal  forgetfulness,  a  number 
of  phenomena  which,  in  their  highest  degree,  are  usually  ob- 
served in  mental  diseases.  This  corelation  cannot  surprise  us 
when  we  remember  that  lime  and  phosphorus  are  very  impor- 
tant constituent  parts  of  the  nerve-cells.  These  substances  are 
indispensable  for  the  normal  structure  of  the  latter,  therefore 
are  necessary  for  those  highly  important  cells  which  constitute 
the  layers  of  the  brain-cortex,  the  seat  of  the  intellectual  facul- 
ties. It  has  been  proven  in  ether  extracts  that  the  gray  sub- 
stance of  which  the  brain-cortex  consists  contains  more  phos- 
phorus than  does  the  white  substance. 


54  Human  Intelligence. 


Petrowsky  also  found  twice  as  much  lecithin  in  the  former 
as  in  the  latter.  A  very  interesting  discovery  of  Marie  leads 
us  to  the  conclusion  that  in  idiocy  and  dementia  pr^ecox,  which 
is  the  most  common  of  all  mental  diseases,  the  brain  contains 
less  phosphorus. 

In  osteomalacia,  as  we  have  seen  above,  disturbance  of 
mental  faculties  frequently  occurs.  If  our  assumption  is  cor- 
rect, this  condition  should  be  improved  after  administration  of 
phosphorus.  This  is  actually  the  case,  and  also  the  lime  me- 
tabolism is  favorably  influenced  by  it.  Similar  improvement  by 
treatment  with  phosphorus  was  obtained  in  rickets. 

Of  great  importance  are  the  experiments  of  Forster,^  who 
kept  dogs  on  a  diet  from  which  all  nutritive  salts  had  been 
removed  except  phosphorus  and  lime. 

The  result  was  that  they  all  became  stupid,  and  lost  all 
their  intellectual  faculties.  That  the  introduction  of  phos- 
phorus exercises  a  favorable  influence  upon  the  nerve  functions 
may  already  be  concluded  from  the  frequent  therapeutic  admin- 
istration of  the  lecithins.  By  administration  of  phosphorus 
favorable  results  have  been  obtained  in  Basedow's  disease 
(Kocher,^  Trachewsky),  and  sometimes  also  in  epilepsy. 

Phosphorus  can  be  very  profitably  administered  by  means 
of  nourishment  containing  lecithin  in  abundance.  The  so  im- 
portant lecithins,  which  are  indispensable  for  the  normal  func- 
tion of  the  central  nervous  system,  contain  phosphorus  as  their 
most  important  constituent  part. 

According  to  Slowzoff,'^  the  lecithins  influence  favorably  a 
more  profitable  utilization  of  phosphorus  introduced  with  the 
food.  If  such  important  constituent  parts  of  the  nerve-cells  as 
phosphorus  and  lime  are  eliminated  in  large  quantities,  then, 
as  a  rule,   disturbances  of  the  nervous   function  and  thinking 

2  Forster,  Mitt,  der  morphol.-physiol.      Gesellschaft  zti   Miinchen,   1878, 
Nr.  3. 

3  Kocher,  Mitt,  aus  den  Grenzgebieten,  Med.  u.  Chir.,  1901,  24. 

4  Slowzoff,  Zeitschr.  fiir  physikalische  und  diatetische  Therapie.    April- 
und  Maihcft,  1910. 


Influence  of  Lime  and  Phosphorus  'Metabolism.  55 

faculty  cannot  fail  to  appear.  This  we  observe  very  distinctl}', 
for  instance,  in  chronic  inflammation  of  the  prostate,  but  in 
highest  degree  in  osteomalacia,  where  mental  disturbances  occur 
frequently.  As,  for  instanse,  Weber^  found,  forty  years  ago, 
that  of  fifteen  osteomalacic  pelves  in  the  Museum  of  Patholog- 
ical Anatomy  at  Prague,  six  came  from  insane  asylums.  He 
also  induced  an  examination  of  the  central  nervous  system  for 
the  investigation  of  the  nature  of  osteomalacia. 

Wagner  von  Jaueregg*^  has  already  observed  in  1890  that 
in  regions  where  many  cases  of  osteomalacia  are  observed, 
mental  disturbances  during  pregnancy  and  in  puerperium  also 
occur.  I,  myself,  have  observed  a  condition  similar  to  melan- 
cholia in  a  patient  with  osteomalacia  in  the  hospital  in  Ottawa 
(Can.),  which  was  shown  to  me  by  Colleague  MacArthur  in 
the  winter  of  1907. 

On  account  of  its  frequent  occurrence  during  pregnancy 
and  in  puerperium  the  cause  of  bone  softening  has  been  attrib- 
uted to  the  overactivity  of  the  ovaries  (Fehling).  When  in 
such  women  the  ovaries  were  removed  a  cure  had  actually  taken 
place.  Some  of  the  later  investigators  attribute  the  cause  of 
osteomalacia  to  another  ductless  gland, — to  the  thyroid  gland, 
and  others, — to  the  suprarenal  gland.  The  truth  is  probably 
the  same  here  as  in  other  diseases  of  the  ductless  glands, 
namely,  that  we  have  to  deal  with  disturbances,  not  in  one  of 
the  glands,  but  in  all  of  them.  Mostly,  the  thyroid  participates 
in  the  process,  because  the  latter  exercises  a  very  powerful  influ- 
ence upon  the  bone  system.'''  We  know  that  the  inactivity  of 
this  gland  retards  the  ossification  of  bones;  on  the  other  hand, 
we  know  that  in  the  reverse  condition,  in  Basedow's  disease 
and  in  diabetes,  too  much  lime  and  phosphorus  are  eliminated. 
Growth  in  children  is  also  much  increased  by  administration  of 


s  Prager  Vierteljahrsschrift,  Bd.  i,'  nach  v.  d.  Scheer  zitiert. 

6  Wagner  v.  Jaueregg,  Osteomalazie  und  Geistesstorungen,  Jahrbuch  fiir 
Psychiatric,  1890. 

7  Lorand,  Old  Age. 


56  Human  Intelligence. 


thyroid  (Hertoghe).  The  thyroid  helps  in  utilization  of  the 
lime  and  phosphorus  which  are  introduced  with  the  food.  Of 
this  fact  I  have  convinced  myself  very  clearly  from  observation 
of  a  number  of  patients,  two  cases  of  which  I  should  like  to 
mention  here.  In  a  30-year-old  manufacturer  from  Vienna  I 
found  an  elimination  of  a  very  great  quantity  of  phosphoric 
acid,  namely,  4.80  gr.  to  the  liter,  in  normal  feeding.  The 
patient  was  a  neurasthenic,  with  symptoms  of  high  melancholic 
depression,  no  desire  for  work,  very  bad  memory,  absent-mind- 
edness, insomnia,  impotence.  I  gave  him  a  diet  rich  in  phos- 
phorus, and  also  two  thyroid  tablets  daily.  When  I  examined 
the  urine  two  weeks  later  for  phosphorus  elimination,  an  in- 
crase  of  phosphorus  utilization  had  been  established,  namely, 
2.30  gr.  to  the  liter.  In  a  second  case  I  had  a  45-year-old  mer- 
chant, a  neurasthenic,  very  excitable,  very  absent-minded  and 
forgetful,  making  mistakes  very  frequently  in  speaking,  rest- 
less and  constantly  gesticulating.  The  urine  showed  4.30  gr. 
of  phosphorus  to  the  liter.  After  a  two  weeks'  treatment  with 
a  diet  rich  in  phosphorus,  and  one  or  two  thyroid  tablets  daily, 
much  better  utilization  of  phosphorus  could  be  observed,  namely, 
1.85  gr.  to  the  liter.  Both  patients  felt  better  at  the  end  of  the 
treatment,  and  were  mentally  more  active.  The  second  patient 
was  also  less  excitable. 

It  has  been  proven  by  a  number  of  experiments  that  by 
excessive  administration  of  thyroid  too  much  phosphorus  and 
lime  are  eliminated.  According  to  Silvestri  and  Tosatti,^  mod- 
erate doses  of  thyroidin  promote  the  retention  of  lime,  while 
large  doses  of  the  former  promote  a  too  great  elimination  of 
the  latter. 

A  diet  which  is  rich  in  lime  and  phosphorus  may,  at  any 
rate,  as  we  will  see  in  the  next  chapter,  exert  a  very  favorable 
influence  upon  the  thinking  faculty. 


8  Silvestri   und  Tosatti,   Gazzetta  degli   ospedali   e   delle   cliniche   1907, 
p.  1067. 


CHAPTER    VL 

The  Influence  of  Nourishment  upon  the 
Intelligence, 

Among  those  tribes  in  the  lowest  state  of  civiHzation,  and 
which  are  usually  ranked  under  the  common  name  "wild," 
nourishment  is,  as  a  rule,  very  meager,  and  they  swallow  it 
down  greedily,  like  wild  beasts;  particularly  is  this  the  case 
with  meat,  which  is  rarely  gotten  hold  of. 

According  to  Wallis^  the  inhabitants  of  the  islands  of 
Tierra  del  Fuego  devour  a  still  struggling  fish  from  head  to  tail 
like  the  sea-calf  does,  and  tear  up  a  whole  bird  raw  with  large 
bites.  The  Papuans  do  not  take  the  trouble  to  properly  cook  or 
fry  the  large  newts  which  they  may  have  caught,  but  eat  them 
half-raw. 

Grasshoppers,  larvae  and  plant-roots  frequently  constitute 
the  meager  food  for  the  Bushmen;  when  occasionally,  however, 
an  animal  becomes  their  prey  they  (and  this  is  also  the  case 
with  Hottentots)  eat  it  up  half-alive,  and  suck  off  the  bones. 
Meat  constitutes  a  very  rare  article  for  those  wild  tribes,  be- 
cause cattle  raising,  which  affords  the  proper  means  for  meat 
supply,  is  very  difficult,  due  to  the  tropical  climate.  For  this 
reason  even  the  putrified  meat  of  dead  animals  is  a  feast  for 
them.  The  Kafhrs  and  Bongos^  of  eastern  Africa  fight  with 
the  hawks  over  carcasses  left  by  the  lions.  They  find  this  meat 
more  tender  and  easier  to  digest,  and  seem  to  experience  no  ill 
effects  from  such  delicacies,  even  when,  as  the  negroes  in  the 
interior  of  Africa  frequently  do,  they  celebrate  real  orgies  with 
the  meat  of  large  dead  animals.  They  are  able  to  partake  of 
such  meat  for  hours  until,  from  consuming  enormous  quantities 
of  it,  they  get  into  a  state  of  exaltation  or  intoxication,  and  as 


1  Wallis,  Universal  History  of  Voyages,  vol.  iii,  p.  230. 

2  Schweinfurth,  Im  Herzen  Afrikas,  i,  S.  289. 

(57) 


58  Human  Intelligence. 

an  after-effect  are  rendered  unable  to  perform  any  kind  of  work 
for  a  whole  day.  A  similar  thing  is  observed  in  Australian 
negroes  when  a  dead  whale  happens  to  be  thrown  up  on  their 
coast ;  they  continue  eating  that  enormous  animals  for  days. 

The  intellect  of  these  tribes,  who  feed  themselves  in  such 
a  barbaric  fashion,  is  of  the  lowest  and  most  animal  kind. 
Darwin^  tells  of  a  case  in  which  a  Tierra  del  Fuegian  killed  his 
child  by  striking  its  head  against  a  rock,  because,  while  playing, 
it  had  upset  a  basket  containing  mollusks. 

He  also  said  that  the  Tierra  del  Fuegians,  driven  by  want 
of  meat,  first  eat  up  their  old  women  before  they  decide  to  do 
the  same  with  their  house-dogs.  The  Kaffirs,  again,  put  up 
traps  for  lions,  using  their  children  for  bait,  and  the  cry  of.  the 
latter  actually  attracts  the  lions.^  It  cannot  be  assumed  that 
they  understand  the  enormity  of  such  an  act,  for  they  are  so 
stupid  that  when  a  number  of  them  are  standing  in  a  row  to 
urinate  they  would  rather  do  so  upon  one  another  than  get  out 
of  the  way  of  each  other.  The  animal-like  nature  of  these  wild 
tribes  is  also  manifested  by  the  fact  that  while  the  mother  cares 
for  the  suckling  with  the  utmost  tenderness,  she  is  indifferent 
about  the  child  when  it  grows  up.  She,  therefore,  acts  like  a 
cat's  mother.  Burton^  also  found  that  the  father  is,  similar  to 
animals,  very  hostile  to  his  son  when  he  grows  up. 

The  art  of  thinking  among  these  wild  tribes  is,  in  general, 
not  much  above  the  level  of  the  animal.  It  is  hardly  possible  to 
find  in  them  a  single  quality  which  would  indicate  any  higher 
human  intellect.  Most  of  them,  in  the  first  place,  lack  the  main 
factor  for  development  of  intelligence,  in  that  they  are  not  able 
to  devote  their  attention  to  any  object.  When  Cook  came  to 
Australia  the  first  time  on  his  ship  Endeavor,  he  noticed  partic- 
ularly that  the  natives  did  not  show  the  slightest  amazement  at 
the  sight  of  the  ship,  notwithstanding  that  they  had  never  seen 


3  Darwin,  Voyage  Around  the  Earth,  S.  232. 

4Layland,  Journal  of  the  Ethnol.  Society  London,  1860,  vol.  i.  p.  79. 

5  Burton,  Travel  to  the  Great  Lakes,  p.  637. 


Influence  of  Nourishment.  59 

a  ship  before,  which  seemed  to  them  a  swimming  structure. 
They  came  on  board,  but  manifested  no  curiosity  whatever  about 
the  many  new  things,  which  they  had  never  seen  in  their  hves. 
The  lack  of  curiosity  can  only  be  attributed  to  the  inability  to 
pay  attention,  and  man  lacking  the  faculty  of  paying  attention 
is,  as  we  will  see  later,  unfit  for  any  intelligent  work. 

If  speech  may  be  considered  as  measuring  the  intelligence 
of  a  people,  then  the  low  grade  of  it  in  the  wild  tribes  is  already 
indicated  by  their  poor  vocabulary,  which  in  some  African  lan- 
guages is  so  limited  that,  in  order  to  make  themselves  better 
understood,  the  natives  have  to  add  gestures  to  the  words  which 
they  are  using.  Because  of  a  meager  vocabulary,  some  wild 
tribes,  to  express  their  ideas  in  a  crude  form,  are  compelled  to 
use  illustration,  as  also  was  the  case  with  the  primitive  men, 
the  cave-dwellers,  whereas,  it  is  well  known  that  the  English 
and  Americans,  whose  language  has  the  richest  vocabulary  of 
all  people,  gesticulate  the  least. 

In  the  languages  of  the  wild  there  are  words  only  for  con- 
crete objects;  abstract  ideas  which  require  more  intelligence  are 
unknown  to  them.  The  same  with  counting;  they  have  only 
words  to  count  up  to  'five ;  for  the  number  five  they  say  "one 
hand,"  for  the  number  ten  they  say  "two  hands."  Some  tribes, 
as  the  Australian,  can  only  count  to  two;  what  is  above  that 
they  express  by  "many."  We  see  from  this  how  psychologically 
correct  the  saying  is:  "He  is  so  dumb  that  he  cannot  count 
two." 

The  Esquimaux  are  also  unable  to  count,  and,  according  to 
Crantz,^  are  hardly  able  to  count  the  fingers  of  one  hand.  They 
are  neither  able  to  state  the  time,  nor  are  they  able  to  tell  their 
age.  Their  food  is  also  very  meager,  in  the  sense  that  it  lacks 
variety.  If  we  glance  over  the  population  of  the  earth  we  will 
find,  as  a  general  rule,  that  wherever  the  food  is  meager,  poor, 
or  one-sided,  not  containing  all  the  main  groups  of  our  food- 
stuffs, the  respective  population  is  found  to  be  of  a  low  grade 

6  Crantz,  History  of  Greenland,  S.  186. 


60  Human  Intelligence. 


of  intelligence.  The  lowest  grade  we  find,  however,  where 
meat  or,  more  correctly  speaking,  albumin  as  foodstuff  is  want- 
ing. This  is  very  natural,  for  the  latter  is  simply  indispensable 
for  the  building  up  and  the  proper  functioning  of  the  central  nerv- 
ous system.  It  is  indispensable  for  blood  formation,  because 
it  is  urgently  needed  for  the  formation  of  the  blood-plasm  and 
blood-corpuscles.  Nourishment  which  is  poor  in  albumin  surely 
leads  to  anemia,  and  this  can  seriously  affect  the  blood-supply 
of  the  brain-cortex.  It  has  to  be  considered  further  that,  with 
albuminous  food  very  important  chemical  substances,  such  as 
lime,  and  particularly  phosphorus,  are  introduced  into  the  body 
for  the  building  up  of  the  nerve-cells  and,  consequently,  also  of 
the  cells  of  the  brain-cortex.  With  no  other  food  are  we  able 
to  incorporate  into  our  bodies  these  substances  in  such  large 
quantities  as  we  are  able  to  do  with  meat  and  fish,  which  are 
rich  with  nucleins;  the  same  may  be  said  of  cheese,  milk  and 
eggs,  but  all  these  are  foodstuffs  which  are  very  meagerly  rep- 
resented in  the  nourishment  of  wild  tribes. 

If  we  compare  the  intelligence  of  those  inhabitants  of 
Europe  or  elsewhere,  who  feed  themselves  mainly  with  meat 
and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  vegetables  in  addition,  with  those  who 
use  only  carbohydrates,  we  find  that  the  former  have  every- 
where subdued  and  displaced  the  latter.  The  ample  meat-using 
Dutch  have  subjugated  the  rice-eating  Javanese  and  Malays. 
The  English,  notwithstanding  their  being  very  small  in  num- 
ber, have,  thanks  only  to  their  higher  intelligence,  with  only  a 
handful  of  soldiers,  as  it  were,  subdued  the  almost  exclusively 
rice-eating  Hindoos.  Millions  of  people  have  been  kept  in  check 
by  a  small  number  of  Europeans  through  their  higher  intelli- 
gence, just  as  one  human  individual  is  able  to  restrain  and  to 
tame  a  dozen  wild  beasts,  such  as  lions  and  tigers,  only  because 
of  the  difference  in  the  brain  of  the  animal  and  man.  The 
Japanese  stand  on  higher  level,  but  they  are  carbohydrate  con- 
sumers only  to  a  certain  degree;  in  addition  to  rice  many  of 


Influence  of  Nourishment.  61 

them  eat  fish  daily,  and  the  Japanese  soldiers  also  receive  meat 
rations. 

The  superiority  of  the  European  is  not  to  be  attributed, 
however,  only  to  the  mixed  diet  and  rich  food,  but  also  to 
favorable  climatic  conditions,  as  we  will  see  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

Influence  of  Climate,  Seasons  of  the  Year  and 

Weather   upon   the  Ability  to   Think 

AND  Mental  Activity. 

Wherever  man  lives  he  is  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the 
elements  which  surround  him.  He  is  composed  of  these  ele- 
ments, because  his  flesh  and  blood,  his  heart,  liver  and  kidneys, 
all  his  bones  and  also  his  brain  are  composed  of  minute  particles 
of  the  same  elements  which  compose  the  atmosphere  surround- 
ing him,  the  earth  which  carries  and  nourishes  him,  the  water 
which  he  drinks,  the  air  which  he  breathes.  The  sun,  and  the 
moon  too,  possibly  exercise  a  powerful  influence  upon  man. 
Without  the  coactivity  of  the  sun,  no  life  on  earth  would  be 
possible.  Where  its  rays  reach  the  earth  only  sparingly,  plants, 
vegetables  and  fruit  grow  only  very  scantily,  and  because  ani- 
mals do  not  find  sufficient  food,  man  is,  in  such  regions,  deprived 
of  his  most  important  food  product,  meat.  The  consequence  is 
a  one-sided  nourishment.  The  same  occurs,  however,  in  such 
regions  where  the  heat  from  the  sun  reaches  a  high  degree,  and 
cattle  raising  becomes  difficult  on  that  account.  Excessive  heat 
has  possibly  a  still  more  unfavorable  influence  by  its  directly 
weakening  action.  We  know  from  observation  how  difficult  it 
is  to  do  any  mental  work  during  the  hot  summer  days,  and  it 
is,  therefore,  a  wise  provision  that  schools  are  closed  in  such 
hot  weather.  When  the  air  is  very  hot,  and  particularly  when 
it  is  combined  with  humidity,  thinking  is  very  difficult,  and 
man's  actions  are  less  under  the  controlling  influence  of  reason, 
they  lack  judgment,  and  on  hot  summer  days,  or  in  the  regions 
with  an  intolerably  hot  climate,  violent  acts  more  frequently 
occur.  Our  courts  should  exercise  more  leniency  in  decreeing 
penalty  for  offenses  committed  during  these  hot,  sultry  sum- 
(62) 


Influence  of  Climate  and  Seasons.  63 

mer  days,  which  exercise  such  an  unfavorable  psychological 
influence. 

That  the  working  ability  of  the  white  man  in  hot  climates 
is  very  much  reduced  has  been  proven  repeatedly.  Not  rarely 
this  can  also  be  clearly  seen  from  reports  sent  from  those 
regions.  For  instance,  Colonel  C.  E.  Woodruff,  United  States 
military  surgeon  in  the  Philippines,  told  me  that  in  the  reports 
of  various  committees  he  frequently  found  entirely  false  assump- 
tions, entirely  illogical  conclusions,  and  frequently  signs  of  in- 
correct observations  in  the  Philippine  service. 

It  is  a  very  significant  fact  in  this  connection  that  such  hot 
regions  have  hardly  given  a  single  genius  to  mankind.  All 
over  the  natives  there  are  of  the  lowest  grade  of  culture;  they 
are  wild. 

Just  about  as  unfavorable  is  the  influence  of  extreme  cold, 
which  keeps  civilization  on  a  very  low  level  in  the  Polar  regions. 
The  absence  of  the  sun  in  the  northern  regions  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  and  the  often  covered  sky  in  the 
northern  lands  have  a  very  depressing  influence  upon  the  emo- 
tions, and  consequently  also  upon  thinking.  In  the  extreme 
North  the  man  is  silent,  more  considerate  of  what  he  says — 
more  meditative.  His  thinking  is  more  under  control  of  strong 
judgment.  How  different  to  this  is  the  word-flow  of  the  South- 
erner! The  smallest  sensation  produces  in  him  a  comparatively 
strong  reaction,  an  excessive  exaltation,  and  this  may  naturally 
facilitate  the  production  of  imaginary  presentations  and  phan- 
tasies. 

Just  as  the  North  cultivates  the  gift  of  criticism,  so  the 
South  cultivates  more  the  power  of  imagination,  and  the  latter 
is  actually  the  real  home  of  art  and  music. 

What  characterizes  genius  is  originality  combined  with 
criticism.  Originality,  on  the  other  hand,  without  strong  power 
of  imagination,  is  an  impossibility.  When,  therefore,  the  North 
is  characterized  by  criticism  and  the  South  by  originality,  the 
temperate  climate  is  characterized  by  both.     In  the  northern  part 


64  Human  Intelligence. 


of  the  temperate  zone  criticism  will  predominate;  in  the  southern 
part  originality  is  prevalent. 

Under  the  temperate  zones  we  do  not  mean  the  geograph- 
ical position,  but  we  have  in  view  the  climatic  condition,  and, 
therefore,  Scotland,  and  the  most  densely  populated  part  of  Scan- 
dinavia, as  well  as  the  greater  part  of  Russia  and  Italy,  belong  to 
that  temperate  zone.  The  largest  number  of  men  of  genius,  that 
is  to  say,  men  who  combine  original  ideas  with  much  imagination 
and  much  of  the  critical  faculty,  have,  in  relation  to  the  size 
of  population,  been  produced  in  the  warmest  sections  of  this  zone, 
in  Italy  and  England. 

In  the  colder  sections  of  this  zone,  for  instance  in  Ger- 
many, the  critical  predisposition  predominates  to  a  very  great 
extent,  and  we  actually  find  here  the  greatest  number  of  exact 
scientists.  Germany  is  the  fatherland  of  the  cold,  critical  mind; 
there,  under  the  influence  of  the  great,  probably  too  great,  criti- 
cism, originality  is  surely  more  restrained  than  in  any  other 
country  of  the  world.  Whether  to  all  questions  in  so  short  a 
span  of  human  life  a  too  strong  criticism  and  too  great  a  dose 
of  skepticism  is  well  applied  should  be  worth  while  discussing. 
If  the  German  race  is  characterized  by  too  much  criticism,  the 
Roman  by  too  much  phantasia,  then  the  Anglo-Saxon  race, 
which  originates  from  the  two,  possesses  both  qualities  in  a 
high  degree,  and  to  this  may  be  attributed  its  high  intelligence. 

Of  a  number  of  prominent  geniuses  it  is  reported  that  they 
could  work  only  during  beautiful  weather  or  only  in  warm  tem- 
peratures. So,  for  instance,  the  working  rooms  of  Voltaire, 
Buff  on,  and  Kant  had  to  be  heated  even  during  the  summer; 
Napoleon  had  also  his  room  heated  even  in  July.  Schiller  wrote 
to  Goethe  in  May,  1799,  that  he  hoped  to  work  again  as  soon 
as  the  nice  weather  sets  in.  In  November  he  wrote  him  that  in 
these  doleful  days  with  heavy  skies  he  feels  no  desire  at  all  to 
work;  in  December,  again,  that  in  this  gloomy  weather  it  is 
almost  impossible  for  him  to  think  clearly.  On  the  contrary,  in 
July,  1 81 8,  he  metions  that,  thanks  to  the  beautiful  weather,  he 


Influence  of  Climate  and  Seasons.  66 

feels  better  and  feels  the  poetical  inspiration  coming.  In  De- 
cember of  the  same  year  he  regrets  that  the  finishing  of  the 
"Wallenstein"  has  to  be  done  in  just  such  a  time  of  the  year 
when  it  is  difficult  for  him  to  keep  his  mind  clear.  Kant  also 
was  particularly  sensitive  toward  influences  of  the  weather,  and 
the  first  question  which  he  usually  directed  to  his  visitors  was 
about  that  subject. 

Most  mental  workers  would  be  able  to  confirm  it  from  their 
own  experience;  under  the  influence  of  extreme  temperature, 
either  too  great  heat  or  too  great  cold,  they  are  less  fit  to 
think,  and  feel  no  desire  for  mental  work.  I  know  myself  that 
in  nice,  sunny  weather  I  feel  more  pleasure  in  mental  work.  Of 
all  seasons  of  the  year  the  beautiful  spring  is  the  most  favorable 
time;  it  is  the  time  when  activity  dominates  everywhere  in 
nature,  and  all  instincts  are  stimulated.  The  mind  is  also  favor- 
ably stimulated  in  spring. 

The  cold  weather  of  the  winter,  on  the  contrary,  acts  rather 
depressingly.  So  we  find  Milton,^  in  one  of  his  letters  of  1678, 
stating  that  the  cold  of  the  winter  puts  great  obstacles  in  'the 
way  of  free  development  of  his  imagination,  and  that  he  works 
best  in  the  spring. 

That  mental  activity  is  most  stimulated  in  warm  spring 
days  follows  clearly  from  the  statistical  investigation  made  by 
Lombroso.  He  found  that  most  of  the  creations  of  art  and 
literature,  as  well  as  most  discoveries  in  physics,  chemistry  and 
mathematics,  have  been  made  in  the  spring;  the  fall  stands  next, 
then  comes  the  summer,  and  last  of  all  is  the  winter.  A  very 
interesting  proof  was  advanced  by  Lombroso,  namely,  that 
three  great  medical  investigators,  Spalanzani,  Malpighi,  and 
Galvani,  made  their  discoveries  in  the  spring  months.  Lom- 
broso attributes  great  influence  upon  mental  forces  to  warm 
temperature,  sunshine,  and  particularly  to  sunny  high  altitudes. 
According  to  him,  the  greatest  thinkers,  the  men  of  most  high 
intellect,  come  from  sunny,  high,  mountainous  regions,  where 

1  Dr.  Johnson,  The  Life  of  Milton,  London,  1809. 


66  Human  Intelligence. 


men  are  also  of  great  stature.  The  explanation  for  this  is,  that 
in  these  regions  the  air  is  the  purest,  and  exerts  an  exciting  and 
ozonizing  influence,  the  blood  becomes  well  oxidized,  and  this 
is  necessary  for  brain-work.  My  explanation  for  this  phe- 
nomenon is  a  different  one.  I  would  like  to  call  attention  to 
the  great  influence  of  sun-rays  and  heat  upon  the  activity  of 
the  thyroid  gland,  which  manifests  itself  in  an  increase  of  func- 
tions which  are  under  its  control,  such  as  blood-formation, 
blood-circulation,  growth,  lime-  and  phosphorus-  metabolism. 
Of  course,  Lombroso^  could  not  take  this  fact  into  considera- 
tion, because  at  the  time  when  he  wrote  his  book  very  little 
work  had  been  done  in  this  direction.  Very  little  also  was 
known  at  that  time  about  the  influence  of  the  thyroid  gland 
upon  bodily  and  mental  growth. 


2  Lombroso,  L'homme  de  genie,  IV  Auflage,  Paris,  1900,  S.  190. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 
Influence  of  Heredity  upon  the  Ability  of  Thinking. 

If  parents  manifest  some  anomaly  in  normal  thinking, 
something  similar  may  be  found  very  frequently  in  their  chil- 
dren. This  applies  also  to  the  more  serious  disturbances  of 
thinking  power — the  mental  diseases.  The  predisposition  to  it 
is  inherited.  As  a  rule,  these  disturbances  become  manifest  in 
the  children  at  an  earlier  age  than  in  the  parents.  According 
to  the  investigations  of  a  very  competent  investigator,  Mott, 
the  influence  of  heredity  becomes  particularly  noticeable  in  the 
juvenile  period;  when  the  children  have  attained  a  certain  age 
the  probability  of  inheritance  is  diminished,  and  continues  to 
decrease  with  age. 

The  critical  period  which  is  to  be  mostly  watched  is  pu- 
berty. Even  normal  children,  particularly  girls,  are  at  that 
period  in  a  condition  of  excitation,  on  account  of  an  increased 
activity  of  the  sexual  glands.  At  the  same  time  changes  in  the 
thyroid  gland  take  place,  and  as  these  glands,  as  we  learned  in 
Chapters  I  and  II,  exercise  a  certain  regulatory  influence  upon 
the  normal  thinking  ability,  changes  in  the  latter  may  be  pro- 
duced in  consequence.  This  condition  may  become  very  dan- 
gerous if  the  offspring  inherit  changes  in  the  ductless  glands 
from  their  parents.  At  the  German  Congress  for  Internal 
Medicine^  I  have  proved  that  the  ductless  glands  take  part  in 
inheritance.  If  parents  manifest  changes  in  the  ductless  glands, 
the  same  will  be  noticed  in  the  children.  I  have  also  men- 
tioned the  case  of  Osterreicher,  in  which  Basedow's  disease  was 
inherited  by  eight  brothers  and  sisters;  also  the  experiments 
of    Lanz,2    who    found    that    when    goats    had    their    thyroid 


1  Lorand,  Verhandlungen  des  Deutschen  Kongresses  fiir  innere  Medizin, 
1905.     Diskussion  iiber  Vererbung. 

2  Lanz,  Archiv  fiir  klin.  Chirurgie,  1905. 

(67) 


68  Human  Intelligence. 


removed  their  offspring  manifested  symptoms  of  myxedema 
and  remained  decidedly  backward  in  their  growth.  Particularly 
instructive  is  the  case  reported  by  Lanz,  in  which  an  otherwise 
healthy  mother  had  two  children  with  normal  thyroids,  but 
when  at  the  age  of  40  she  acquired  a  goiter  the  child  which 
was  born  afterward  also  had  a  goiter.  Acromegalia  also  fre- 
quently originates  as  inheritance  (Schwoner,  Bonardi),  and  it 
is  worthy  of  mention  that  the  heritage  from  the  mother  is  much 
more  frequently  found  in  the  daughters  than  in  the  sons,  as 
shown  by  Mott.^ 

If,  therefore,  mental  disturbances  are  so  frequently  in- 
herited, the  blame  must,  in  many  instances,  be  attributed  to 
those  factors  which  are  frequently  the  underlying  causes  of 
mental  diseases,  and  these  are  changes  in  the  ductless  glands. 
This  is  also  proven  by  the  fact  that  all  those  agencies  which 
exert  an  unfavorable  influence  upon  the  ductless  glands,  partic- 
ularly upon  the  thyroid,  also  encourage  hereditary  tendencies. 
This  is  well  established,  for  example,  in  alcoholism,  syphilis, 
sexual  excesses,  multiple  pregnancies,  and  most  particularly  in 
mental  excitements.  The  latter  is  probably  also  the  underlying 
cause  for  the  harm  done  by  the  too  great  demand  made  upon 
the  mentality  of  the  pupils  in  the  grammar  schools. 

I  should  like  to  report  here  a  case  out  of  my  own  experi- 
ence. It  was  that  of  a  young  Canadian  girl  from  a  good  family, 
who  took  up  the  profession  of  nursing.  It  may  be  mentioned 
here  that  in  Canada  and  in  the  United  States  the  nurses  come 
very  often  from  fashionable  families,  and  always  have  a  good 
education.  This  girl  afterward  took  up  the  study  of  medicine, 
but  the  preparation  for  passing  the  examination  for  the  doctor's 
degree  was  fatal  for  her.  She  became  insane,  which  was  par- 
tially due  to  the  influence  of  inheritance.  If  great  caution  in 
regard  to  heredity  is  required  in  boys,  it  is  still  more  so 
with  respect  to  girls,  because  in  the  latter  the  physiological 
changes  in  the  sexual  glands  are  of  still  greater  importance. 


3Mott,  Brain,  1911,  39,  S.  73. 


Influence  of  Heredity.  69 


Inheritance  of  mental  diseases  is  particularly  favored  by 
intermarriage.  To  this  may  also  be  attributed  the  frequency  of 
mental  diseases  among  the  Jews.  According  to  Lombroso^  the 
frequency  is  six  times  greater  among  the  latter  than  among 
other  denominations.  Statistics  taken  on  December  i,  1880,  in 
Prussia,  have  shown  thirty  insane  Jews  to  twenty-four  Lu- 
therans and  twenty-three  Catholics.  Based  upon  his  experience 
in  Colney  Hatch  Asylum,  Mott  points  out  the  frequency  of 
inherited  mental  diseases  among  Jews.  On  the  other  hand, 
again,  we  find  among  Jews,  according  to  Lombroso  and  Jacobs, 
surprisingly  often,  many  mental  faculties  highly  developed,  as, 
for  instance,  in  the  domain  of  music,  literature,  medicine  and 
languages;  particularly,  however,  in  the  sciences  and  in  finance, 
Lombroso  has  pointed  out  their  creative,  initiative  ability. 

The  influence  of  interbreeding  is  particularly  pronounced 
among  the  Polish  Jews,  among  whom  neurasthenia  and  hysteria 
very  frequently  occur.  The  same  is  also  noticeable  among  races 
inhabiting  secluded  localities,  such  as  the  Shetland  Islands  or  in 
mountain  inhabitants  of  Bosnia  (Kobler).^  I  should  like  to 
raise  the  question  he-re,  whether  the  frequency  of  idiocy  in  the 
deep  valleys  is  not  due,  in  addition  to  absence  of  sunshine  and 
the  influence  of  the  water,  also  to  lack  of  communication  with 
the  outside  world,  which  favors  intermarriages.  In  the  interest 
of  the  development  of  mankind  it  would  be  very  desirable  that 
marriages  between  subjects  of  various  nationalities  and  various 
classes  of  population  should  take  place  more  often. 

If  we  admit  that  mental  inferiority  is,  as  a  rule,  transmis- 
sible by  inheritance,  so  that  it  is  desirable  to  make  marriage  of 
the  insane  impossible  by  law,  we  must  also  admit  that  superior 
mental  faculties  may  also  be  transmitted  to  the  offspring.  If 
degeneration  of  the  ductless  glands  is  undoubtedly  transmitted, 
we  must  assume  the  same  for  the  good  qualities  of  those  glands. 


4  Lombroso,  /.  c. 

5  Kobler,  Verhandlungen  des  Internat.  Medizinischen  Kongresses,  Mad- 
rid, 1902.    Neurologische  Sektion. 


70  Human  Intelligence. 


And,  in  fact,  we  see  it,  for  instance,  in  the  case  where  the  high 
stature  of  the  father  or  of  the  mother,  or  still  more  of  both,  is 
transmitted  to  the  offspring.  This  would,  however,  be  impos- 
sible if  the  thyroid,  the  parathyroid,  or  the  sexual  glands  were 
not  in  good  condition,  because  all  these  glands  influence  the 
growth  of  the  skeleton.  The  growth  of  the  extremities  and  of 
the  skull  is  influenced  by  these  glands  and  by  the  hypophysis, 
and,  therefore,  w^e  see  the  children  resemble  their  parents  in 
form  of  the  skull  and  face.  This  is  even  noticeable  in  minute 
details;  for  example,  in  the  inherited  drooping  lower  lip  of  the 
Hapsburgs  and  the  large,  prominent  nose  among  the  Bourbons. 
The  transmission  of  the  good  qualities  of  the  ductless  glands, 
particularly  of  the  thyroid  gland,  is  not  limited,  however,  only 
to  the  physical  side  of  the  body,  but  also  to  the  mental.  That 
the  capabilities  of  the  parents  may  be  transmitted  to  the  chil- 
dren we  know  from  the  works  of  Galton. 

According  to  Galton' s  law,  the  characteristics  of  the  chil- 
dren are  inherited  from  the  parents  in  50  per  cent,  of  cases; 
from  grandparents  in  25  per  cent.,  and  from  the  great-grand- 
parents 12^5  and  only  recently  Peters^  was  able  to  confirm  the 
correctness  of  this  law  with  regard  to  mental  faculties.  He 
found  that  when  parents  were  intelligent,  and  had  shown 
marked  ability  in  school,  the  same  could  be  observed  in  their 
children  and  grandchildren.  Experience,  moreover,  shows  that 
mental  faculties  of  any  kind  may  be  inherited  in  the  same  fam- 
ily. This  is  clearly  shown  in  families  in  which  a  preference  for 
music  exists.  The  transmission  of  this  predisposition  we  see 
strikingly  often.  Children  of  professional  musicians  are  very 
often  born  musicians,  as  was,  for  instance,  the  case  with 
Beethoven,  Mozart,  Haydn,  and  particularly  with  Bach.  In  the 
family  of  the  latter  music  was  cultivated  for  hundreds  of  years 
back.  In  the  seventeenth  century  there  lived  one  Miiller  Bach, 
the  progenitor  of  the  family  in  Freiburg,  who  was  known  as  an 
ardent  devotee  of  music,  and  up  to  the  present  day  the  prefer- 


6  Peters,  Kongress  fur  Psychologic,  Berlin,  1912. 


Influence  of  Heredity.  71 

ence  for  music  lives  in  that  family.  Among  the  offspring  of 
the  distinguished  Jacques  Bernouille  most  of  them  were  excellent 
mathematicians.  Charles  Darwin's  son  was  also  a  celebrated 
naturalist. 

As  a  brilliant  example  of  inheritance  of  the  faculties  of 
genius  I  would  like  to  mention  the  Herschells,  father  and  son. 
Herschell's  father  was  oboeist  in  the  Guard  at  Hanover.  At  the 
age  of  19  he  entered  military  service  as  a  musician,  and  was 
sent  to  London.  He  was  an  excellent  musician,  and  being  a 
well-appreciated  member  of  the  Octagon  Chapel,  he  gave  lessons 
which  were  well  paid  for.  Through  studying  Smith's  "Science 
of  Harmony"  he  began  to  read  books  about  optics,  and  this 
awakened  his  interest  for  astronomy.  He  remained  awake  many 
a  night  to  study  the  stars  from  the  roof  of  his  home.  With  the 
money  earned  by  giving  lessons  he  constructed  a  telescope  and 
made  observations  aided  by  his  distinguished  sister  Caroline. 
Herschell  made  many  discoveries  in  the  domain  of  astronomy, 
and  later  became  one  of  the  greatest  astronomers  of  the  w^orld. 
I  mention  the  details  of  his  life  because  they  show  traits  char- 
acteristic of  genius,  of  which  we  will  speak  later.  Herschell 
married  at  the  age  of  50,  and  at  the  age  of  52  he  became  the 
father  of  a  son,  who  also  became  a  genius  in  the  domain  of 
chemical  photography.  Independently  of  Talbot,  he  discovered 
photography  and  was  first  to  prepare  positive  and  negative  films. 
He  was  also  a  great  astronomer,  and  manifested,  while  only  a 
boy,  gifts  as  a  mathematician,  having  presented  contributions  in 
mathematics  before  the  Royal  Scientific  Society  at  Cambridge. 
Both  father  and  son  were  scientists  of  great  originality;  their 
work  was  of  the  creative,  initiative  kind;  they  were  both  dis- 
coverers. 

The  interesting  point  in  this,  so  rare  example  of  a  son  of 
a  genius  also  becoming  a  genius,  is  that  the  father  was  52  years 
old  when  the  son  was  born.  There  are  other  examples  which 
indicate  that  geniuses  are  begotten  by  older  men.  Children 
begotten  at  a  greater  age,  however,  as  between  80  and  90,  are, 


72  Human  Intelligence. 


as  I  have  shown  in  my  book  "Old  Age,"  in  most  instances 
idiots. 

In  the  art  of  painting  these  inheritances  also  frequently 
exist.  This  is  clearly  illustrated  in  the  Tizian  family.  I  can 
also  mention  an  instructive  example  of  inherited  talent  for  paint- 
ing out  of  my  own  experience.  I  know  two  sons  of  a  world- 
famous  Vienna  painter,  who,  among  others,  painted  the  por- 
traits of  the  parents  of  the  Emperor  William  II.  and  Queen 
Victoria  of  England.  The  younger  boy,  a  godson  of  Empress 
Victoria,  drew  for  me,  at  the  age  of  lo,  all  kinds  of  objects 
from  life,  which  were  true  to  nature.  He  at  that  time  did  not 
have  any  instruction  whatsoever;  therefore  the  presence  of  an 
inherited  faculty  no  one  could  deny.  The  second  son  became 
later  a  very  famous  artist  in  Munich. 

The  inheritance  by  the  son  from  the  father  is  not  so  fre- 
quent; in  fact,  we  see  more  often  that  sons  look  like  the  mother 
and  also  inherit  the  mother's  faculties.  Not  infrequently  it  hap- 
pens that  talent,  while  inherited  from  the  father,  is  discovered 
and  developed  by  the  mother.  We  are  more  under  obligation 
to  our  mother  than  to  our  father.  She  spends  all  of  her  time 
with  the  child  and  watches  its  development.  The  mother  is  the 
best  and  most  natural  educator  of  the  child.  It  is  the  mothers 
who  bring  up  the  greatest  men.  Napoleon  always  said  that  for 
everything  he  had  to  thank  his  mother. 

Geniuses  have  not  always,  however,  been  particularly  care- 
ful in  selecting  their  wives.  Matrimonial  happiness  was  not 
always  found  in  their  homes.  They  were  able  to  impress  every- 
body except  their  own  wives.  Socrates  had  his  Xantippe,  and 
Napoleon,  while  he  was  a  great  man  before  the  whole  world, 
was,  in  the  eyes  of  his  Marie  Louise,  not  so  great  as  the  well- 
built  Count  Neipperg,  whom  she  married  after  the  fall  of 
Napoleon.  It  is  possibly  due  to  this  influence  of  matrimonial 
unhappiness  that  marriages  of  geniuses  remain  childless.  It 
seems  as  if  sterility  is  almost  a  characteristic  of  a  genius. 
Nature  is  very  economical  with  her  precious  gifts.     She  makes 


Influence  of  Heredity.  73 

the  glittering  gold  and  diamonds  originate  in  places  where  man 
can  find  them  only  with  difficulty  and  after  hard  labor.  Every- 
thing which  man  longs  for  she  makes  rare;  beauty  and  high 
intelligence  are  rare  faculties,  and  among  many,  many  thou- 
sands of  brains  there  is  only  one  in  which  the  divine  spark  of 
genius  shines.  It  is  as  if  nature's  potency  in  creating  a  genius 
becomes  exhausted  and  cannot  act  to  the  same  degree  in  the 
generations  following.  The  son  of  the  divine  Mozart,  Franz 
Xavier  Mozart,  inherited  nothing  from  his  father's  ingenuity. 
If  we  glance  over  his  compositions  we  find  nothing  original  in 
them,  of  the  creative;  of  the  inspiration  which  characterized  his 
distinguished  father,  there  are  no  traces  to  be  found.  But  we 
can,  indeed,  not  expect  any  inspiration  from  anyone  who,  as  he 
used  to  say  himself,  liked  a  good  supper  better  than  the  best 
music,  and  to  whom  the  sound  of  gold  coins  jingling  in  his 
pocket  was  the  best  music.  Rembrandt's  son  manifested  noth- 
ing in  his  pictures  of  that  wonderful  tone  which  characterized 
those  of  his  father,  notwithstanding  that  the  latter  took  much 
pains  with  him.  Titus  Rembrandt,  the  illegitimate  son  of  the 
famous  Rembrandt  and  Hendrickje  de  Taghers,  who  was  his 
servant-girl,  became  only  a  very  little  known,  mediocre  artist. 

Oliver  Cromwell's  son  Richard  was  entirely  unfit  for  the 
high  office  which  he  occupied,  and  he  himself  resigned  from  it. 
It  seems  really  that  very  frequently  the  father's  fame  becomes 
a  malediction  to  the  son,  and  the  good  fortune  of  the  former 
becomes  misfortune  to  the  latter.  The  rich  table  which  he  finds 
set  before  him  when  entering  the  world  satisfies  his  appetite 
very  soon.  Just  as  salt  and  pepper  is  needed  for  the  table,  so 
are  poverty  and  deprivation  the  best  spices  to  stimulate  ambition 
and  increase  diligence;  tliey  are  the  best  teachers. 


CHAPTER   IX. 
The  Influence  of  Age  upon  the  Intelligence. 

We  have  learned  that  the  abiHty  to  think  is  very  much 
influenced  by  the  blood-circulation  in  the  brain-cortex.  If  dur- 
ing advanced  age  an  increase  of  the  connective  tissue  in  the 
blood-vessels  of  the  brain-cortex  takes  place,  blood-circulation  in 
that  region  becomes  impaired,  and  this  would  naturally  cause 
disturbances  of  the  thinl<ing  power. 

This  fact  can  easily  be  observed  when  carrying  on  a  some- 
what extended  conversation  with  an  old  man.  You  will  notice 
sometimes  that  during  the  conversation  he  will  come  to  a  stand- 
still because  he  cannot  recollect  most  important  occurrences,  and 
particularly  personal  names.  He  may  also  begin  a  new  sentence 
before  he  has  finished  the  previous  one,  or  jimip  from  one  sub- 
ject to  another.  His  talk,  therefore,  becomes  purposeless.  Often 
he  forgets  the  subject  of  the  sentence  before  he  finishes  it. 

That  which  characterizes  the  intelligence  of  an  old  man 
mainly  is  a  weak  memory ;  he  cannot  incorporate  anything  into 
his  memory.  We  can  explain  it  very  easily  if  we  take  into  con- 
sideration the  fact  that  to  memorize  something  we  must  con- 
centrate our  attention  on  the  subject.  The  latter,  however,  re- 
quires deep  thinking,  which  is  only  possible  when  the  blood- 
supply  to  the  brain  is  sufficient,  but  this  is  here  made  more  diffi- 
cult on  account  of  the  arteriosclerotic  changes  in  the  blood-ves- 
sels of  the  brain. 

Old  people  remember  much  more  distinctly,  however,  things 
which  have  occurred  when  they  were  young;  during  a  time, 
therefore,  when  the  blood-circulation  in  their  brain-cortex  was 
still  very  lively  and  their  thyroid  gland  quite  active.  In  view 
of  the  fact  that  memory  is  the  necessary  foundation  for  ac- 
quisition of  new  experience  and  knowledge,  and  that  without  it 
learning  is  entirely  impossible,  old  people  can  learn  anything 
(74) 


Influence  of  Age.  75 


new  only  with  difficulty.  Owing  to  deficiencies  in  the  organs 
of  sense,  exact  perception  and  fixation  of  new  ideas  and  impres- 
sions into  the  memory  become  difficult. 

In  giving  a  decision  or  in  expressing  an  opinion  we  are 
guided  by  our  experience  in  the  past  as  well  as  that  of  recent 
occurrence.  In  old  people  recent  experience  is,  however,  very 
meager  and  incomplete;  their  judgment  is,  therefore,  often  nar- 
row, and  almost  always  conservative;  not  very  easily  affected 
by  innovation,  just  because  they  do  not  easily  acquire  any 
new  experience  and  knowledge.  Imagination,  imitativeness  and 
original  thoughts  are  only  very  rarely  found  among  the  old. 
Much  more  often  do  we  find  these  faculties  among  the  young. 
The  young  have  a  more  rapid  and  more  extensive  blood-circula- 
tion, and  are  more  easily  inspired  by  new  ideas.  The  youth 
becomes  intoxicated  much  more  easily  than  the  old  man,  not 
only  metaphorically,  but  also  literally.  An  old  person  can  some- 
times stand  large  quantities  of  alcohol  without  becoming  intoxi- 
cated— such  a  case  I  observed  quite  recently  in  a  single  lady 
82  years  old — because  in  such  a  case  a  very  great  blood  conges- 
tion to  the  brain-cortex  undoubtedly  plays  a  great  role,  and  this 
does  not  take  place  in  old  people  very  easily. 

Notwithstanding  the  above-mentioned  impaired  thinking 
ability  of  an  old  rnan,  he  has  an  enormous  advantage  over  the 
young;  he  has  gathered  in  the  course  of  his  long  life  an  enor- 
mous amount  of  facts  and  experience,  and  can  always  recall 
them  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  make  comparisons  for  the 
purpose  of  drawing  conclusions  and  forming  an  opinion.  The 
more  he  is  able!  to  draw  upon  similar  facts  and  experience 
gained,  the  more  keen,  more  careful  and  the  wiser  will  his  judg- 
ment be.  The  latter  will  be  wise,  and  will  be  the  wisdom  which 
should  mark  the  judgment  of  a  mentally  healthy  old  man. 
While  there  are  very  many  old  men  who  suffer  from  arterio- 
sclerosis of  the  brain,  who  have  no  memory  at  all,  and  are 
unable  to  observe  anything,  and  while  most  old  men  never  or 
only  rarely  have  original  ideas,  we  find,  on  the  other  hand,  old 


yd  Human  Intelligence. 


people  with  well-preserved  blood-vessels  and  a  still  active  thy- 
roid, who  are  in  possession  of  an  admirable  intellect,  fresh  mem- 
ory, original  thoughts  and  enormous  experience.  To  this  kind  of 
men  did  Gladstone  belong,  who  was  honored  as  the  wise  man 
of  the  nation.  Sallust  was  perfectly  justified  in  saying,  "Melius 
in  senibus  ratio  et  judicium  est !" 

It  is  known,  moreover,  of  a  number  of  men  of  genius  that 
they  have  produced  mental  creations  of  the  highest  degree  and 
originality  even  at  very  advanced  old  age.  We  know  that 
arteriosclerosis  does  not  necessarily  involve  all  blood-vessels, 
and  not  every  old  man  must  necessarily  suffer  from  arterio- 
sclerosis. An  old  man,  therefore,  who  preserves  his  health, 
whose  brain  vessels  do  not  show  as  yet  much  of  arteriosclerosis 
and  who,  besides  his  power  of  criticism  acquired  throughout  his 
long  life,  also  has  good  organs  of  sense,  and  is  able  to  grasp 
good  ideas,  will  always  stand  higher  mentally  than  a  young  man. 
Whenever  the  well-supplied-with-blood  brain  of  the  young  might 
lead  them  into  the  realm  of  excessive  imagination,  and  ideas 
threaten  to  cut  loose  from  the  sphere  of  reality,  such  an  old  man 
could  benefit  them  with  good  advice  which  is  based  upon  his 
rich  experience.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  aged  to  restrain  the  tire 
of  the  young.  The  old  are  often  our  best  counsellors;  they 
can  teach  us  very  much.  How  much  truth  is  in  the  French 
saying:  "Les  vieux  singes  apprennent  au  jeunes  a  faire  des 
grimaces." 

I  learned  very  much  from  an  aged  Carlsbad  colleague,  the 
all-respected  Dr.  Gallus  von  Hochberger,  when  I  took  him  once 
to  a  patient,  fourteen  years  ago,  for  a  consultation.  The  patient, 
the  old  Count  J.  N.,  from  Budapest,  was  83  years  old,  the  con- 
sultant 96  years.  Notwithstanding  this  old  age,  the  mind  of 
the  old  man  was  very  fresh.  I  learned  from  him  a  lot  of  useful 
hints,  such  as  cannot  be  found  in  any  textbook.  Textbooks  are 
generally  full  of  scientific  material,  but  contain  nothing  of  the 
simplest  things,  such  as  are  required  in  every-day  life.  The 
practice  which  was  in  vogue  a  hundred  years  ago,  that  young 


Influence  of  Age.  77 


physicians  became  apprentices  to  old  ones  and  learn  medicine 
the  same  as  any  other  trade,  had  surely  many  good  features, 
particularly  when  one  was  fortunate  to  get  into  the  hands  of 
^n  able  master,  but  not  into  the  hands  of  Dr.  Sangrado  or  Dr. 
Cuchillo^  of  Gil  Bias  de  Santillana. 

One  of  my  patients,  the  82-year-old  Countess  von  M.,  in 
Mailand,  still  spends  a  part  of  the  day  on  philosophical  studies. 
Her  thinking  ability  and  judgment  are  those  of  a  40-year-old 
woman  with  great  education.  She  has  in  her  castle  a  large 
library  under  the  charge  of  special  attendants.  I  had  even 
opportunity  to  admire  her  judgment  in  sculpture  when  I  once 
happened  to  be  present  when  she  was  giving  a  young  sculptor, 
whom  she  educated,  advice  in  regard  to  his  studies.  This  lady 
manages,  together  with  one  of  her  relatives,  several  of  the  larg- 
est industrial  establishments  in  Italy. 

Calmness,  reflection,  consideration,  cautiousness,  which  are 
the  requirements  for  criticism,  characterize  the  mode  of  think- 
ing of  the  aged,  and  influences  also  all  their  actions.  In  difficult, 
dangerous  investigations  one  would,  therefore,  feel  the  safest 
under  the  guidance  of  gray,  older  men. 

When  I  make  a  trip  into  the  mountains  with  many  prec- 
ipices I  always  prefer  an  old  driver  to  a  young  one,  but  when 
I  have  to  make  a  call  on  a  patient  in  Carlsbad  in  a  hurry  I  pre- 
fer to  have  a  young  driver.  In  wars  we  observe  the  same; 
Napoleon  and  his  younger  generals  were  like  a  whirlwind;  they 
were  bold,  very  often  rash  and  quick  to  strike  before  the  enemy 
had  grasped  the  situation.  This  well  characterizes  the  war  tac- 
tics of  a  young  general,  and  he  is  best  adapted  for  offensive 
war;  in  defensive  war,  however,  old  generals  will  very  often  be 
more  in  place.  In  case  of  organizing  or  equipping  an  army  the 
latter  will  also  exhibit  more  caution.  With  few  exceptions  the 
best  service  will  be  rendered,  as  is  seen,  for  example,  in  Marshal 
"Vorward"  and  Moltke  at  mature  middle  age,  because  the 
offensive  as  well  as  the  defensive  war  would  be  more  actively 

1  Sangrado  is  the  Spanish  word  for  bloody,  and  cuchillo  for  knife. 


78  Human  Intelligence. 


carried  out  at  that  age.  Here  are  very  often  combined  the 
faculties  of  the  youth  with  those  of  the  aged. 

Now,  whereas  too  much  of  criticism  characterizes  the  in- 
telligence of  old  age,  and  too  little  of  it  and  the  predominance  of 
phantasia  characterize  youth,  the  mature  middle  age  possesses 
a  combination  of  both.  It  is,  therefore,  observed  that  this  is  the 
period  in  life  which  is  most  particularly  favorable  for  valuable 
mental  activity ;  and,  in  fact,  we  find,  when  we  study  biographies 
of  great  men,  that  their  best  creations,  their  greatest  discoveries 
have  mostly  been  made  at  such  an  age,  and  that  most  of  these 
men  have  only  become  known  at  such  a  time.  Of  course,  there 
are  also  in  this  respect  individual  exceptions,  as,  for  instance, 
the  great  mathematician  Pascal,  who  wrote  his  great  work  on 
Conic  Sections  at  the  age  of  14. 

Among  the  musical  composers  the  faculties  of  genius  mani- 
fest themselves  at  the  most  early  period,  as,  for  instance,  in  Moz- 
art, Haydn,  Beethoven,  but  it  must  be  taken  into  consideration 
that  in  these  Instances  the  fathers  have  already  been  professional 
m.usicians,  and  that  the  little  ones  have  been  put  at  the  piano 
when  they  had  barely  been  able  to  manipulate  their  fingers. 
Some  of  them  have  also-  been  compelled  to  contribute  to  the  sup- 
port of  their  families  very  early,  as,  for  instance,  Beethoven  and 
IVIozart.  By  exercise  and  studies  they  were  enabled  to  acquire 
knowledge  and  experience  which  were  helpful  to  them  in  advanc- 
ing their  own  original  creations.  Those  children  who  mature 
early  manifest  during  their  childhood  the  otherwise  very  rare 
combination  of  the  two  faculties,  the  critical  and  the  imagina- 
tive, which  characterize  the  genius;  the  latter  is  not  very  rare 
in  children,  but  the  first  is  found  very  seldom.  This  is  very 
natural,  because  criticism  can  only  be  based  upon  experience 
gained  from  facts.  The  younger  the  age  of  the  child,  the  less 
it  has  had  opportunity  to  gain  experience.  While  the  brain-cor- 
tex of  a  newborn  child  is  not  altogether  like  a  blank  sheet  of 
paper,  yet  there  is  very  little  written  on  it — only  that  which  has 
been  brought  into  the  world  as  inheritance  in  the  form  of  a 


Influence  of  Age.  79 


limited  number  of  nerve-cells  with  their  prolongations,  which 
serve  for  association  processes.  The  function  is  at  that  time 
only  in  the  form  of  instincts,  and  depends  on  the  activity  of  the 
organs  of  senses.  The  human  child  is,  in  reality,  still  much  less 
developed  mentally  than  many  an  animal.  The  suckling  is,  dur- 
ing the  first  weeks  of  life,  not  able  to  think.  Its  movements  are 
purely  of  an  instinctive,  warding-off,  kind.  Its  whole  mental 
life,  if  we  can  speak  of  such,  is  limited  to  the  action  of  the 
organs  of  the  senses,  mainly  taste,  smell,  hearing  and  sight. 
During  the  first  days,  even  weeks,  the  activity  of  these  organs 
hardly  exists.  But  after  a  few  weeks,  through  the  activity  of 
these  organs,  they  accumulate  pictures  of  various  impressions, 
agreeable  and  disagreeable,  pretty  and  ugly,  which,  depending 
on  the  degree  of  function  of  the  organs  of  sense,  will  be  more 
or  less  distinct  and  will  be  retained  more  or  less  long.  Every- 
thing that  the  child  knows,  all  its  intelligence,  is  built  upon  the 
activity  of  his  organs  of  sense,  particularly  that  of  sight. 

How  greatly  the  sense  of  sight  influences  intelligence  is 
particularly  seen  from  the  investigations  of  Berger.^  He  sewed 
together  the  eyelids  of  newborn  pups  so  as  to  be  sure  that  all 
the  impressions  through  sight  had  been  excluded.  After  a  year 
elapsed  the  brain-cortex  of  these  animals  was  compared  with 
the  brains  of  other  pups,  some  of  the  same  litter,  and  it 
was  observed  that  the  processes  were  less  developed  and  the 
cells  pressed  more  together.  He  also  found  in  the  brains  of 
persons,  who  on  account  of  some  eye  disease  had  been  blind 
over  twenty  years,  that  the  cells  in  the  visual  region  were  smaller 
than  those  in  normal  persons,  and  were  closer  to  one  another. 

Through  the  organ  of  sight  the  child  receives  an  immense 
number  of  impressions.  He  will  naturally  have  a  desire  to 
interpret  and  make  application  of  them,  and  to  this  end  speech 
offers  him  an  immense  service,  and  only  with  the  aid  of  the 


2  Berger,  Beitrage  zur  feineren  Anatomic  der  Grosshirnrinde.  Aus  dem 
Laborat.  der  psychiatrischen  Klinik  zu  Jena  (Monatsschrift  fiir  Psychiatric 
und  Neurologic,  1899,  S.  409). 


80  Human  Intelligence. 


latter  his  whole  education  and  culture,  all  his  instruction  can  be 
accomplished.  And,  therefore,  we  see  that  men  who  are  deaf 
from  birth  and  can  neither  hear  nor  understand  sound  or  speech 
of  others  and  who  cannot  speak  themselves,  remain  more  or  less 
backward  in  their  intelligence. 

This  is  clearly  seen  from  an  experiment  of  the  ingenious 
Indian  Emperor  Akbar.^  To  study  the  influence  of  speech  on 
man  he  had  thirty  newborn  children  brought  up  at  a  distant 
place  under  the  care  of  female  servants  who  were  forbidden  by 
death  penalty  to  speak  even  a  single  word.  All  children  thus 
brought  up  became  simple.  The  organs  of  sense  were  appar- 
ently intact,  but  the  forced  dumbness  had  influenced  them  unfa- 
vorably. These  children  were  only  able  to  stammer,  just  as  we 
see  in  the  deaf  born,  who  still  possess  their  power  over  speech, 
but  can  never  use  and  develop  it. 

How  much  the  speech  stands  in  relation  to  intelligence  we 
can  also  see  from  the  fact  that  the  tribes  which  are  on  the  lower 
plane  of  civilization  have  only  a  primitive  speech  and  a  very 
meager  vocabulary.  They  have  only  words  for  concrete  objects 
and  for  the  numerals  up  to  5  or  10,  as  can  be  seen  from  the 
language  of  the  Mafulu  in  British  New  Guinea.  Something 
similar  may  be,  moreover,  observed  in  some  small  children 
whose  mode  of  thinking  corresponds  often  to  that  of  the  un- 
civilized natives,  and  also  to  that  of  the  insane.  The  thought 
of  the  child  is  concentrated  only  on  concrete  objects  which  are 
brought  to  his  attention  by  the  organs  of  sense.  Through  the 
latter  a  great  number  of  new  impressions  are  brought  to  him, 
of  which  the  strongest,  for  instance  bright  colors  like  red,  excite 
his  attention  the  most,  and  will  be  retained  in  his  memory  the 
longest.  The  otherwise  inattentive  child  is  naturally  captured 
first  by  such  strong  impressions.  Impressions  which  excite  them 
less  disappear  more  quickly  from  his  memory.     A  child  learns 


3  Personliche  Mitteilung  des  Kaisers  Akbar  an  den  Missionar  Pater  J. 
Xavier,  S.  J.,  im  Jahre,  1594,  in  Le  Fere  Jouvencey,  Histoire  de  la.Compagnie 
de  Jesus,  xviii,  No.  14. 


Influence  of  Age.  81 


a  language  quickly,  but  forgets  it  also  extraordinarily  quickly  if 
it  does  not  remain  in  practice.  An  interesting  observation  in 
this  respect  I  made  recently  on  a  3-year-old  child  which  I  saw 
in  the  Lyceum  during  my  visit  to  Dr.  Rollier's  clinic.  This  lit- 
tle Hungarian  girl  was  in  Rollier's  clinic  four  months.  When 
she  entered  the  clinic  she  spoke  only  Hungarian,  but  after  two 
months  she  learned  to  speak  German  and  French ;  after  the  third 
month,  however,  she  forgot  her  mother  tongue,  so  that  when 
her  mother  came  from  Budapest,  speaking  only  Hungarian,  the 
child  could  not  understand  her  at  all.  When  I  attempted  to 
speak  to  this  child,  who  was  away  from  home  only  four  months, 
in  her  own  mother  tongue,  she  could  not  understand  a  single 
word,  even  the  offering  of  such  dainties  as  would  gladden  the 
heart  of  any  Hungarian  child.  The  child  spoke  German  and 
French  apparently  just  as  well  as  its  playmates,  but  not  a  single 
word  of  its  mother  tongue. 

In  teaching  a  child,  the  frequent  practice  of  that  which  it 
had  learned  must,  therefore,  be  particularly  considered;  it  must 
not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  those  things  are  best  retained 
which  were  well  understood,  and  which  have  been  well  noticed 
during  the  lesson.  A  child  notices  and  understands  best  a  con- 
crete subject,  because  his  thinking  is  only  concrete.  He  builds 
his  perceptions  of  an  object  upon  the  impression  received  by 
his  visual  organs,  because  he  can  think  of  something  abstract 
only  with  difficulty.  As  an  illustration  of  this  I  would  like  to 
report  here  the  result  of  my  observation  of  a  6-year-old  Dutch 
girl.  I  asked  the  child,  "Tell  me  what  is  a  butcher."  The  child 
answered,  "A  butcher  is  a  man  who  has  on  a  white  apron." 
Another  lo-year-old  girl  said,  "A  butcher  is  a  man  who  sells 
meat."  Children  thus  judge  strictly  according  to  what  they  have 
seen.  The  judgment  of  a  child,  its  mode  of  thinking,  is  charac- 
terized by  the  grasping  of,  not  the  essentials,  but  the  non-essen- 
tial, external  features,  because  it  has  noticed  these  and  its  atten- 
tion was  only  excited  by  them.  It  was,  therefore,  not  the 
essentials  of  the  butcher,  that  he  kills  animals,  which  attracted 


82  Human  Intelligence. 


the  attention  of  the  child,  but  what  it  had  seen,  namely,  that  he 
had  a  white  apron  on  and  was  selling  meat. 

The  judgment  of  the  child,  consequently  his  thinking,  de- 
pends naturally  and  mainly  upon  what  he  has  learned  and 
experienced.  A  young  child,  however,  has  as  yet  learned  very 
little  and  can  gather  very  few  facts  from  experience.  He  lacks, 
therefore,  discernment  and  cannot  distinguish  between  what  is 
possible  and  what  is  impossible,  what  is  real  and  what  is  ficti- 
tious. He  is  naturally  attracted  more  by  the  wonderful  and 
fabulous,  because  this  is  more  exciting  and  more  captivating. 
Similar  to  a  young  animal,  the  human  child  is  also  more  curious ; 
everything  new  and  glistening  attracts  his  attention.  He  seeks 
instruction;  this  is  fortunately  inherent  in  human  offspring — is 
always  curious,  particularly  so  a  child  with  inherited  intelligent 
faculties — puts  numerous  questions  in  regard  to  everything  that 
comes  in  his  way  and  excites  his  attention.  On  account  of  lack 
of  material,  consisting  of  facts  gained  from  experience,  he  can 
form  his  opinion  only  with  difficulty,  and  therefore  conforms 
with  the  opinion  of  adults.  He  tries  to  imitate  the  grown-up, 
and  the  tendency  for  imitation  is  as  if  hereditary.  The  pic- 
tures memorized  of  what  he  has  seen  and  heard,  often  subjects 
and  occurrences  bordering  on  the  wonderful,  inspire  him  to 
reproduce  them  in  reality,  to  represent  them.  This  is  the  cause 
for  the  inclination  to  play.  The  observation  of  Perez^  of  what 
idea  some  children  had  of  hell  is  very  interesting.  It  was  that 
of  a  big  cooking  pot  on  the  stove  with  the  bubbling  soup  in  it, 
that  was  the  devil's  kettle.  The  boiling  carrots,  onions  and 
potatoes  were  the  damned.  The  superior  "devil"  was  the  oldest 
child,  a  boy  of  12  years.  When  the  fluid  was  boiling  and  one 
of  the  "poor  souls"  came  to  the  surface  the  "devil"  grabbed  it 
and  with  the  cooking  spoon  pushed  it  back  into  the  "boiling 
hell!" 

The  usually  limited  thinking  power  of  a  child  becomes 
gradually  more  mature,  his  power  of  judgment  becomes  more 


4  Perez,  L'enfant  de  3  a  7  ans.    Paris,  S.  276. 


Influence  of  Age.  83 


free  the  more  facts  he  acquires  from  experience  during  the 
course  of  years.  The  actual  maturity  of  the  thinking  power 
manifests  itself,  however,  only  at  the  time  of  sexual  maturity, 
when  the  sexual  glands  and  the  thyroid  gland  become  fully 
active.  Up  to  that  time  the  thinking  abilities  of  the  boy  and  girl 
have  much  in  common.  From  this  time  on,  however,  as  soon 
as  the  sexual  impulse  becomes  powerfully  manifested,  a  radical 
difference  in  the  thinking  power  takes  place. 


II     THE  INFLUENCE   OF  SEXUAL   IMPULSE  AND  THE 
SEXUAL  DIFFERENCE  UPON  THE  INTELLIGENCE. 


CHAPTER    X. 

The  Influence  of  Sexual  Impulse,  the  Excess  of  It 
AND  Its  Absence,  upon  the  Intelligence. 

The  impulses  are  the  factors  which  put  the  mechanism  of 
the  artistically  built-up  human  machine  in  motion.  They  form 
the  concealed  incitem.ents  for  all  actions  of  man  and  for  all 
manifestations  of  his  physical  and  mental  activity  and  creative 
power.  Through  the  various  excitations  and  perceptions  which 
act  upon  the  senses  these  become  stimulated  and  the  spark  which 
they  ignite  sets  the  whole  machinery  in  motion.  Without  sexual 
impulse  there  would  be  no  love,  and  without  love  there  would 
also  be  no  poetry.  Art  and  literature  have  received  their  great- 
est inspiration  from  the  sensation  caused  by  love,  which  is  the 
expression  of  the  sexual  instinct. 

Without  imagination  there  can  be  no  art,  and  nothing  can 
stimulate  it  better  than  the  feeling  of  love.  It  is  the  latter  which 
is  the  best  guide  for  the  pen  of  the  poet  and  the  brush  of  the 
painter; and  he  whose  brain  lacks  this  feeling  will  not  be  able  to 
rise  high ;  he  will  present  only  dead  forms  deprived  of  the  spark 
of  life.  He  will  never  be  able  to  inspire  others  to  worship  and 
admiration  as  is  done  by  the  masterpieces  of  Michael  Angelo, 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Cellini,  which  have  all  originated  under  the 
influence  of  the  great  passion  of  their  masters. 

Poetry,  and  also  artistic  presentation,  were  the  forms  in 
which  the  sciences  were  taught  up  to  some  centuries  ago.  At 
that  time  fiction  and  truth  were  closely  connected  with  one  an- 
other. While,  however,  in  arts  the  main  role  is  played  by 
phantasy,  in  sciences  this  is  played  by  criticism.  In  sciences, 
(84) 


Influence  of  Sexual  Impulse.  85 

again,  it  seems  that  the  ultimate  stimulating  cause  was  the 
instinct  for  need  of  nourishment,  the  gaining  of  possibilities  for 
existence.  It  is,  therefore,  not  unjustifiable  to  say  that  in  the 
end  art  and  literature  were  inspired  by  ardent  sexual  impulses, 
whereas  the  powerful  impulses  in  science  were  due  to  the  instinct 
of  hunger,  to  the  struggle  for  existence.  We  see,  moreover, 
nowadays  that  the  majority  of  the  inquisitive  adepts  devoting 
themselves  to  the  sciences  are  guided  in  that  respect  by  the 
desire  to  earn  the  daily  bread,  and  by  the  endeavor  to  establish 
a  source  for  existence. 

While  criticism  plays  the  dominating  role  in  the  sciences, 
phantasy  cannot  be  entirely  missed;  and,  in  fact,  the  most 
ingenious  inventions  and  discoveries  of  the  last  century  have 
been  made  with  its  aid.  What  really  characterizes  men  of  genius 
is  that  they  possess  both  imagination  and  criticism,  a  faculty 
which  is  very  rare  among  scientists  of  our  time,  because  in  our 
schools,  due  to  the  dry  methods  of  instruction,  only  criticism  is 
cultivated. 

We  have  already  mentioned  the  relations  which  exist  be- 
tween fancy  and  sexual  impulse,  and,  indeed,  when  we  glance 
over  the  life  histories  of  the  great  men  in  those  domains  in 
which  fancy  is  a  dominating  factor, — as,  for  instance,  in  poerty, 
drama,  art,  music, — we  will  very  frequently  find  indications  of  a 
very  vivid  sexual  impulse.  The  adoration  of  women  by  Goethe 
is  well  known ;,  he  actually  could  not  live  and  work  without  hav- 
ing women  around  him.  Even  as  an  old  man  he  was  always  in 
love,  and,  according  to  the  local  reports,  it  not  infrequently  hap- 
pened that  when  "Herr  Goethe,"  as  the  girls  in  Carlsbad  used 
to  call  him,  would  meet  young  girls  promenading  in  the  woods, 
he  would  escort  them  for  hours.  When  Shakespeare  considers 
love  as  having  originated  from  the  heavenly  kingdom  and 
created  a  number  of  gracious,  beautiful,  as  well  as  demoniac 
female  types,  as  Julia  and  Miranda,  Ophelia,  Virginia,  Desde- 
mona,  Cordelia  and  others,  which  he  so  realistically  pictured, 
he  certainly  could  not  have  don©  it  as  a  blind  man  would  describe 


86  Human  Intelligence. 


colors,  but  he  must  have  studied  their  prototypes  in  Hfe.  He 
not  only  knew  love,  but  he  was  also  acquainted  with  occasional 
consequences  of  it,  as  in  his  "Timon  of  Athens,"  Act  4,  Sc,  3, 
he  describes,  almost  as  a  physician  would  do,  the  terrible  symp- 
toms of  tertiary  syphilis,  and  the  same  we  find  in  "Hamlet,"  Act 
V,  Sc.  i;  in  "Henry  IV,"  2  p.,  Act  i,  Sc.  2;  "Henry  V,"  Act 
5,  Sc.  I.  Rubens  would  also  not  have  painted  with  predilection 
luxuriant  figures  in  such  a  number  if  he  had  not  found  partic- 
ular pleasure  in  such  opulent  forms.  Very  often  in  these  great 
men  we  see  confirmed  the  saying  of  Buffon,  "qu'il  n'y  avait  de 
bon  en  amour  que  le  physique,"  and  some  of  them  have,  like 
Baudelaire,  kept  a  book  about  all  their  love  affairs. 

Among  the  great  professional  men,  however,  in  whom  the 
critical  faculty  predominates,  such  as  great  thinkers  and  scien- 
tists, sexual  impulse  is  more  restrained,  at  least  it  is  less  pro- 
nounced; and  it  is  more  so  among  mathematicians.  Among 
representatives  of  the  latter  science,  in  which  strong  criticism 
plays  such  a  great  role,  amorous  natures  are  rather  more  rare. 
In  some  countries  it  seems  to  be  the  popular  belief  that  mathe- 
matics excludes  love.  It  is  narrated,  for  instance,  of  Jean 
Jacques  Rousseau,  that  once  during  his  stay  in  Venice  he  visited 
a  charming  Venetian  lady,  whom  he  describes  in  his  Memoirs 
as  very  beautiful,  but  when,  instead  of  starting  at  once  a  love 
affair,  he,  as  was  his  habit,  first  sat  down  and  became  engaged 
very  deeply  in  thought,  she  lost  her  patience  and  disdainfully 
exclaimed:  "Lascia  le  donne  e  studia  la  matematica"  (You  had 
better  let  women  alone  and  study  mathematics).^  Moebius 
is,  moreover,  of  the  opinion  that  women  have  a  congenital  aver- 
sion to  mathematics  or  anything  dealing  with  figures.  We  find 
that  among  great  thinkers  very  active  sexual  impulse  is  more 
rare  than  among  artists  and  playwrights.  Kant,  the  man  of 
pure  reason,  did  not  associate  much  with  women,  and  remained 
a  bachelor  all  his  lifetime.    It  is  true  that  he  was  of  small,  insig- 


1  According  to  Moebius :    "Die  Anlage  zur  Mathematik,"  Leipzig,   1909, 
Seite  91. 


Influence  of  Sexual  Impulse.  87 

nificant  stature,  whereas  most  women,  for  reasons  known  only 
to  them  alone,  show  more  preference  for  tall,  broad-shouldered 
men  than  for  those  who  possess  mental  faculties.  Spinoza,  when 
he  was  a  grinder  of  optical  lenses,  would  not  leave  the  house 
where  he  lived  for  months  at  a  time.  He  was  continually  study- 
ing all  that  time,  and  such  protracted  studying  is  generally  not 
favorable  for  engagements  in  love  affairs.  He,  previous  to  this 
time,  boarded  with  a  beautiful  widow,  but,  unlike  other  boarders 
of  such  widows,  he  did  not  seem  to  have  been  in  close  relation 
to  her  at  all,  otherwise  she  would  not  have  raised  his  rent,  so 
that  he  was  compelled  to  move  somewhere  else.  It  seems,  how- 
ever, that  not  all  great  thinkers  have  been  such  heroes  of  virtue 
and  avoided  the  company  of  women.  At  least  it  is  reported  of 
some  that  they  have  left  illegitimate  children,  as,  for  instance, 
Descartes,  Galilei,  Leibnitz,  Franklin,  and  others.  The  fact  that 
most  of  these  men  remained  single  I  would  not  interpret  as  proof 
of  their  being  women-haters ;  indeed,  in  some  of  them  it  is  rather 
an  argument  against  it.  Of  many  we  know  that  they  have  been 
unfortunate  in  love,  as,  for  instance,  Pascal,  who  admired  the 
sister  of  a  count;  and  Spinoza,  who  in  his  early  youth  loved 
the  daughter  of  his  teacher.  Dr.  von  Enden,  but  she  preferred 
a  richer  man.  Particularly  of  Rousseau  and  Voltaire,  nobody, 
even  their  worst  enemy,  would  assert  that  they  were  women- 
haters.  Rousseau  was  already  in  love  during  his  early  youth 
with  Madame  de  Warren,  and  had  also  a  number  of  love  affairs 
later  on.  He  also  repeatedly  came  in  conflict  with  the  laws  of 
public  morals.  Voltaire,  again,  was  only  happy  when  he  had  the 
opportunity  to  compose  songs  on  beautiful  women;  he  kept  up 
love  affairs  with  many  of  them,  and  also  had  in  his  home  a 
beautiful  young  girl  whom  he  brought  up. 

After  all  that  has  been  stated  above,  it  seems  that  the  life 
of  most  great  men  is  stamped  with  a  strong  sexual  trait,  and 
this  already  indicates  that  a  connection  possibly  exists  between 
disposition  to  genius  and  sexual  impulse.  This  assumption  finds, 
however,  more  support  in  the  fact  that  in  absence  of  sexual 


88  Human  Intelligence. 


impulse  or  after  castration  in  childhood,  the  mental  faculties 
remain  entirely  undeveloped.  This  is  the  case  with  many  cas- 
trates and  eunuchs  of  the  Orient. 

According  to  the  corresponding  descriptions  of  all  travelers 
in  the  Orient,  eunuchs  show  a  number  of  peculiarities  which  are 
not  compatible  with  high  intelligence,  such  as  childish  behavior, 
laziness,  helplessness,  greediness,  cruelty,  superstition.  Their 
cunning  and  shrewdness  is  just  as  little  a  sign  of  intelligence  as 
the  shrewdness  of  our  own  peasants.  We  would  also  search  in 
vain  throughout  all  the  pages  of  the  world's  history  for  even  a 
single  name  of  a  castrated  genius. 

The  unfortunate  Abelard  was  already  40  years  of  age  when 
the  angry  canon,  the  uncle,  enraged  because  of  the  seduction  of 
his  niece  Heloise,  had  him  castrated.  In  regard  to  the  fact  that 
Abelard  still  retained  his  mental  faculties  after  this  misfortime, 
although  they  were  not  of  as  high  a  grade  as  before,  it  must  be 
pointed  out  that  it  is  of  great  importance  whether  the  sexual 
glands  are  removed  during  childhood  or  during  manhood.  It 
has  been  mentioned  already  that  these  glands  exert  a  powerful 
influence  upon  the  metabolism  and  blood  formation,  and  also 
upon  the  development  of  the  brain-cortex.  Whenever  they  are 
absent  or  remain  undeveloped  and  inactive,  the  development  of 
the  brain-cortex  will  suffer,  and,  therefore,  we  find  that  in  idiots, 
cretins,  and  insane  very  frequently,  as  mentioned  in  other  parts 
of  this  book,  the  sexual  glands  have  not  descended  to  their 
ultimate  norm„al  locations,  or  are  very  minute.  When,  however, 
the  brain-cortex,  as  is  the  case  with  the  adult,  is  already  fully 
developed,  then  the  absence  of  the  sexual  glands  is  naturally  not 
of  such  great  importance.  We  see  here  a  condition  similar  to 
the  one  in  regard  to  the  thyroid  gland.  When  the  latter  is  ab- 
sent in  childhood,  it  leads  to  idiocy  or  cretinism;  when,  how- 
ever, it  becomes  degenerated  in  the  adult,  then  the  acquired  men- 
tal faculties  are  retained,  but  it  becomes  difficult  to  acquire  new 
knowledge. 

Very  convincing  in  this  respect  is,  that  in  a  boy,  for  in- 


Influence  of  Sexual  Impulse.  89 

stance,  whose  sexual  glands  have  not  descended  yet,  and  whose 
mentality  is  insufficient  and  limited,  a  change  for  the  better  will 
take  place  as  soon  as  puberty  sets  in,  and  the  glands  have  taken 
their  normal  position,  assume  their  normal  size,  and  their  secre- 
tory activity  has  begun.  These  conditions  have  apparently  found 
recognition  before  the  law,  inasmuch  as  it  is  determined  that 
responsibility  of  children  before  court  begins  only  after  the  four- 
teenth year.  It  would  be  more  appropriate,  in  my  opinion,  if 
the  law  would  recognize  as  the  term  for  the  beginning  of  re- 
sponsibility, not  a  certain  age,  but  the  actual  beginning  of  pub- 
erty, which  is  the  descending  of  the  testicle  or  the  appearance 
of  the  first  menstruation.  I  would  like  to  call  attention  here  to 
the  fact  that  we  can  see  every  day  young  defendants  in  court 
who,  even  at  the  age  of  i6  years,  have  not  reached  puberty  and 
manifest  the  mentality  of  a  child.  To  punish  those  I  consider 
as  a  cruelty,  because  they  are  not  fully  conscious  of  their  acts; 
it  is  just  as  cruel  as  if  the  law  would  hold  children  responsible 
for  their  acts.  As  an  interesting  example  I  would  mention  that 
when  the  Spaniard  wants  to  indicate  an  energetic  and  courage- 
ous man  he  uses  the  expression,  "Tiene  cojones"  (he  has  testi- 
cles). It  is  synonymous  with  the  expression,  "Un  hombre  de 
corage"  (a  daring  fellow). 

Sometimes  we  find  already  in  very  young  children  signs  of 
a  particularly  early  mental  maturity,  but  at  the  same  time  we 
find  in  these  cases,  almost  without  exception,  greatly  developed 
sexual  organs  which  do  not  at  all  correspond  with  the  age  of 
the  individual,  and  very  frequently  we  find  also  onanism.  Here 
we  see,  therefore,  very  distinctly  the  connection  between  the 
sexual  impulse  and  mental  faculties;  sexual  prematurity  is 
corresponding  with  mental  prematurity.  As  a  very  instruc- 
tive example  I  may  mention  here  the  French  writer  Restif  de  la 
Bretonne,  whose  book,  "Monsieur  Nicolas  ou  le  coeur  humain 
devoile,"  containing  the  description  of  all  his  numerous  love 
adventures,  produced  quite  a  sensation  at  the  end  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.     When  he  was  8  years  old  he  began  to  write 


90  Human  Intelligence. 


novels,  and  very  soon  after  he  began  also  to  seduce  young  girls. 
In  my  book  "Old  Age"  I  have  already  mentioned  a  case  of  a 
6-year-old  boy  who  tried  to  play  not  at  all  platonically  father 
and  mother  with  a  5-year-old  girl,  and  at  the  age  of  43^  he 
knew  by  heart  all  the  main  cities  of  the  world;  he  was  an 
exceedingly  intelligent  and  inquisitive  boy.  I  may  call  atten- 
tion to  the  fact,  in  this  connection,  that  almost  all  great  talented 
men  were  early  matured  children.  As  the  best  proof,  however, 
for  the  assumption  that  with  an  early  sexual  maturity  there  is 
also  associated  an  early  maturity  of  the  mental  faculties,  I 
would  like  to  point  out  here  the  condition  existing  in  tumors 
of  the  hypophysis.  In,  this  instance  we  observe,  for  example,  in 
children  of  4  or  5  years  of  age  a  conspicuously  great  develop- 
ment of  the  sexual  organs,  and  simultaneously  with  it  such  a 
surprisingly  early  mental  maturity  that,  for  instance,  in  one  case 
of  Frankl-Hochwarth,^  a  5-year-old  boy,  in  whom  the  pubic 
hairs,  as  well  as  the  sexual  organs,  had  been  entirely  developed, 
was  holding  discussion  about  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  So, 
also,  a  boy  of  4  years,  observed  by  Oesterreich  and  Slawyh,^ 
showed  behavior  of  an  older  person.  He  was  108  cm.  long  and 
had  entirely  developed  sexual  parts  with  a  profuse  growth  of 
pubic  hair.  That  the  degeneration  of  a  single  organ,  as  in  this 
case  of  the  hypophysis,  should  have  produced  this  conspicuous 
development  contradicts  all  our  pathological  conceptions ;  we  are 
rather  compelled  to  attribute  it  to  the  intercorelation  which 
exists  between  all  the  ductless  glands.  The  conditions  in  regard 
to  sexual  impulses,  as  they  exist  in  women,  also  speak  in  favor 
of  it.  As  a  rule  we  find  that  girls  who  menstruate  very  early 
manifest  also  an  early  mental  maturity ;  on  the  other  hand,  those 
girls  who  begin  to  menstruate  very  late,  as,  for  instance,  in 
chlorotic-anemia  individuals,  remain  backward  in  their  mental 

2  Von  Frankl-Hochwarth,  Ueber  Diagnose  der  Zirbeldriisentumoren, 
Deutsche  Zeitschrift  fiir  Nervenheilkunde,  1909,  37. 

3  Oesterreich  und  Slawyh  nach  A.  Schiiller  zitiert  in  innere  Sekretion 
und  Nervensystem,  Bd.  iv  des  Handbuches  der  Neurologic  von  Lewandowsky. 
Berlin,  1913. 


Influence  of  Sexual  Impulse.  91 

faculties.  If,  after  giving  such  girls  thyroid  or  ovarian  extract, 
menstruation  sets  in,  they  also  show  progress  in  school.  Sim- 
ilarly, we  observe  in  women  in  whom,  at  the  age  between  the 
end  of  the  fortieth  and  beginning  of  the  fiftieth  year,  the  sexual 
glands  have  ceased  their  activity  and  menstruation  stops,  there 
is  not  rarely  noticeable  a  diminution  of  the  sexual  impulse.  The 
sexual  impulse  is,  in  general,  less  vivid  among  women  than 
among  men,  and  the  same  has  been  observed  by  Charles  Darwin 
among  animals.  And  the  fact  that  we  find  among  women  fewer 
geniuses,  and,  in  general,  also  a  less  well-developed  intelligence, 
— the  fact  that  there  are  many  women  who  are  far  more  intelli- 
gent than  men  does  not  speak  against  it, — is  undoubtedly  to  be 
considered  from  the  point  of  view  just  advanced.  Particularly 
intelligent  women  have,  as  we  often  learn  from  the  pages  of  the 
world's  history,  manifested  a  very  vivid  sexual  impulse.  Of 
course,  we  must  greatly  distinguish  between  sexual  impulse  and 
sexual  activity.  Many  a  woman  may  be  a  glowing  volcano,  and 
is,  nevertheless,  able  to  restrain  herself  with  a  power  which  Is 
entirely  unknown  to  the  m^an,  just  because,  on  account  of  her 
intelligence,  she  sees  before  her  eyes  the  occasional  bad  conse- 
quences, physically  as  well  as  socially,  which  may  follow  a 
yielding.  It  is  certainly  very  suitably  arranged  that  women 
possess  that  power  of  resisting  the  sexual  impulses  which  is 
more  or  less  lacking  in  men.  This  is  entirely  in  the  interest  of 
race  preservation,  because  unrestrained  submission  would  en- 
danger their  organs  of  reproduction,  and  might  injure,  or 
even  destroy,  their  fertility.  Virtue  is,  therefore,  a  judicious 
arrangement  of  nature.  Of  course,  many  women  make  of 
necessity  a  virtue,  while  the  unsatisfied  sexual  impulse  is  nag- 
ging like  a  worm,  and  it  may,  by  a  deleterious  influence  upon 
the  nervous  system,  produce  in  men,  as  well  as  in  women,  very 
bad  effects  upon  the  mental  faculties. 

Sexually  cold  individuals  are  better  off  in  this  respect,  but 
among  them  high  intelligence  may  not  be  found  very  frequently ; 
they  are  rather  more  liable  to  possess  the  gift  of  criticism  than 
that  of  phantasia. 


CHAPTER   XL 

The  Influence  of   Suppressed   Sexual  Impulse 
AND   Onanism. 

In  subjects  with  a  very  vivid  sexual  impulse,  a  continued 
suppression  and  non-satisfying  of  it  may  often  cause  much  pain 
and  agony,  bodily  as  well  as  mentally.  Physicians  of  experi- 
ence, and  particularly  nerve  specialists,  would  hardly  be  able  to 
deny  that  continual  non-satisfying  of  a  vivid  sexual  impulse  is 
very  frequently  the  source  of  a  very  serious  disturbance  of  the 
nervous  system,  of  the  temperament  and  of  the  mental  state; 
and  this  is  particularly  applicable  to  a  person  with  hereditary 
neuropathic  disposition.  As  in  my  previous  publication,^  I 
should  like  here  also  to  point  out  how  often,  in  single  persons 
of  a  certain  age,  living  in  total  sexual  abstinence,  neurasthenia 
and  hysteria  become  manifest,  unless  we  have  to  deal  with 
members  of  the  ministry,  who,  by  many  years  of  train- 
ing in  novitiates,  may  be  able  to  entirely  kill  these  feelings. 
Regarding  the  cause  for  the  condition  mentioned  we  may  allude 
to  the  facts  revealed  by  experiments  and  practical  experience. 
From  the  investigations  of  Regaud^  and  Mingazzini^  we  have 
learned  that  in  animals  which  are  kept  in  total  abstinence  for  a 
long  time  the  sexual  glands  in  the  males,  as  well  as  in  the 
females,  undergo  degenerative  changes.  We  know,  however, 
that,  as  already  mentioned,  changes  in  these  glands  may  also 
produce  disturbances  in  the  nervous  system  and  spirit.  Experi- 
ence teaches  us,  moreover,  indisputably,  and  every  practitioner 
would  confirm  it,  that  continual  sexual  restraint  may,  in  some 
cases,  cause  disorders  of  the  sexual  faculties,  even  impotency. 


1  Old  Age,  /.  c. 

2  Regaud,     Comptes-rendus    de    I'association    des    Anatomistes,     1903, 
S.  198. 

3  Mingazzini,  R.,  Laboratorio  di  anat.  normale,  1893,  iii, 

(92) 


Influence  of  Suppressed  Sexual  Impulse.  93 

The  investigations  of  Loisel^  and  of  a  number  of  other 
investigators  have  shown  us  that  the  reproductive  glands  eHmi- 
nate  a  toxic  substance  which,  when  injected  into  other  animals 
of  the  same  sex,  would  prove  to  be  poisonous.  This  is  probably 
the  cause  of  the  fact  observed,  that  individuals  who,  after  hav- 
ing previously  led  a  regulated  sexual  life,  have  restrained  them- 
selves for  some  length  of  time,  manifest  abnormal  excitement 
with  great  nervousness,  insomnia,  lack  of  appetite  and  inability 
to  do  any  mental  work.  We  see  these  symptoms  disappear  at 
once  when  opportunity  for  sexual  intercourse  is  again  restored; 
this  is,  for  instance,  observed  in  married  couples  returning  home 
after  a  long  journey.  As  a  very  instructive  example  I  would 
like  to  mention  the  case  of  a  fish  merchant  from  abroad  whom 
I  treated  for  diabetes.  After  the  first  week  he  complained  to 
me  that  he  felt  the  separation  from  his  consort  very  badly;  a 
few  days  later  I  found  that  he  was  nervous,  had  insomnia,  and 
was  very  much  depressed.  The  influence  upon  the  sugar  elimi- 
nation was  very  interesting.  The  patient  had  only  a  slight 
attack  of  diabetes,  and  the  small  quantity  of  sugar  of  0.5  per 
cent,  disappeared  after  a  week's  treatment.  When  he  became 
excitable  through  his  abstinence,  however,  sugar  reappeared, 
0.2  per  cent,  on  the  twelfth  day  of  the  treatment,  notwithstand- 
ing strict  diet;  at  the  same  time  he  lost  7  kg.  in  body  weight. 
Notwithstanding  the  strictest  diet,  it  was  impossible  to  free  this 
sexually  excitable  patient  from  his  sugar,  and  I,  therefore, 
advised  him  to  return  next  time  with  his  wife.  Anyone  having 
experience  with  diabetes  knows  how  easy  elimination  of  sugar 
is  influenced  by  nervous  activity. 

After  all  that  has  been  said  we  must  assume  that  in  sexual 
abstinence  an  accumulation  of  toxic  substances,  with  injury  to 
nervous  system,  takes  place ;  and  after  the  impulse  has  been  sat- 
isfied, together  with  the  elimination  of  these  substances,  the 
injurious  influence  ceases,  and  similarly  to  the  action  produced 
by  pouring  oil  upon  a  stormy  sea,  here  also  the  excited  waves 

4  Loisel,  Comptes-rendus  de  la  Societe  de  Biologic,  1907,  p.  1759, 


94  Human  Intelligence. 


quiet  down.  Moreover,  the  various  preventive  measures  used 
by  married  couples  to  prevent  conception  may  produce  the  same 
effect  as  the  unsatisfied  sexual  impulse,  and  have  bad  influence 
upon  the  nervous  system.  An  excited  sexual  impulse  is  only 
very  rarely  satisfied  in  this  way, 

The  disorders  of  the  nervous  system  caused  by  the  restraint 
of  very  vivid  sexual  impulses  are  naturally  associated  frequently 
with  unfavorable  influence  upon  the  mental  faculties.  In  such 
cases  there  is  often  observed  a  disinclination  for  mental  work, 
and  the  entire  thinking  ability  is  affected,  as  we  will  see 
later  on.  There  is  a  downheartedness,  a  very  striking  absent- 
mindedness,  an  inability  to  take  notice  of  things,  an  aversion 
for  thinking  over  any  problems.  It  can  be  easily  understood 
that  under  such  circumstances  the  progress  in  study  cannot  be 
a  satisfactory  one. 

Remarkable  as  it  may  appear,  men  may  not  infrequently  be 
met  with,  who,  notwithstanding  their  very  vivid  sexual  impulse, 
have  never  had  as  yet  any  intercourse  with  members  of  the 
opposite  sex,  and  this  is  found  not  only  among  monks.  I  have, 
myself,  been  consulted  by  such  men  who  have  manifested  a 
great  number  of  nervous  affections.  One  German  volunteer 
soldier,  for  instance,  had  a  moral  aversion  toward  all  such 
"animal  instincts" ;  he  was  a  very  handsome  young  man,  and 
was  frequently  led  into  temptation  by  the  girls,  but  at  the  last 
moment,  when  the  danger  was  the  greatest,  he  repented  and  the 
partner  met  with  disappointment.  He  masturbated  extensively 
to  make  himself  inert  against  such  temptations.  I  diagnosed 
in  that  patient  that  he  had  dyspepsia,  with  pains  in  the  stomach 
and  hyperacidity;  also  symptoms  of  neurasthenia  which  have 
been  producing  unfavorable  influence  upon  his  studies.  In  a 
case  of  a  druggist  who,  since  the  death  of  his  wife  eight  years 
ago,  with  whom  he  lived  happily,  anxiously  avoided  any  inter- 
course for  fear  of  infection,  I  also  found  neurasthenia,  obstinate 
insomnia,  and  other  nervous  symptoms.  Reflecting  or  cal- 
culating,  or  any  mental    strain   in  general,    caused   him   great 


Influence  of  Suppressed  Sexual  Impulse.  95 

inconvenience,  and,  not  to  be  tortured  any  more  by  it,  he  sold 
his  drug-store.  It  is  no  wonder,  when  such  persons,  who 
are  so  badly  tortured  by  protracted  suppression  of  vivid 
sexual  impulse,  cannot  follow  any  mental  occupation,  and  when, 
for  some  reason  or  other,  they  cannot  or  do  not  want  to  get 
married,  finally  take  refuge  in  masturbation  to  get  relief.  It  is 
assumed  by  such  experienced  authors  as  Havelock  Ellis  and 
Iwan  Bloch^  that  in  such  cases  masturbation  may  act  favorably. 
Based  upon  the  statements  of  such  patients,  Bloch  assumes  that 
after  such  discharges  they  are  relieved  from  a  psychical  pressure 
as  from  a  burden,  get  increased  mental  energy  and  creative 
power.  But  it  would  be  wrong  to  generalize  this  fact.  The  rule 
is  certain  that  masturbation  produces  a  number  of  bad  conse- 
quences if  it  is  habitually  practised,  and  it  is  particularly  inju- 
rious in  children.  Such  children,  if  they  masturbate  excessively 
and  daily,  progress  in  their  studies  only  with  difficulty ;  they  are 
very  absent-minded,  look  sleepy  and  dreamy,  cannot  follow 
attentively  the  instruction  given  by  their  teachers  in  school; 
their  perceptive  ability  and  their  memory  have  suffered  very 
badly. 

Sometimes  in  such  -  persons,  who  have  indulged  in  mastur- 
bation excessively,  and  who  have  carried  it  on  for  years,  fre- 
quently since  childhood,  there  can  be  observed  very  disagreeable 
disturbances  and,  in  cases  of  hereditary  disposition,  even  mental 
diseases.  Sometimes,  however,  masturbation  is  a  sign  of  such 
a  predisposition. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  regard  to  bad  consequences  of  mas- 
turbation, no  generalizations  should  be  made,  because  this  may 
be  found  sometimes  in  men  very  prominent  mentally  in  whom 
it  certainly  could  not  have  done  very  much  injury. 

I  had  as  a  patient  a  few  summers  ago  a  burgomeister,  50 
years  of  age,  who,  notwithstanding  being  married,  confessed  still 
to  masturbating  frequently.    Fiirbringer^  knows  of  a  middle-aged 

5  Iwan  Bloch,  Das  Sexualleben  unserer  Zeit.     Berlin,  1908,  S.  469. 

6  Fiirbringer,  in  Eulenburg's  Enzyklopaedie,  IV  Aufl.,  xi,  S.  55. 


96  Human  Intelligence. 


instructor  who  masturbated  for  a  long  time,  notwithstanding 
being  married,  and  manifested  nevertheless  a  rare  ability  as  a 
teacher  and  scientific  investigator.  Havelock  Ellis  even  re- 
ported a  list  of  men  of  genius,  as  well  as  modern  great  artists 
and  writers,  who  have  indulged  in  that  vice  to  a  great  extent. 
I  personally  am  inclined  to  consider  such  cases  of  excessive  mas- 
turbation, with  at  the  same  time  perfectly  retained  mental  facul- 
ties, as  exceptions. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

The  Influence  of  Sexual  Difference  on  the  Faculty 

OF  Thinking — The  Intelligence  of  a  Man 

and  That  of  a  Woman. 

Man  and  woman  differ  from  one  another  in  their  way  of 
thinking.  This  is  quite  natural,  because  if  it  is  true,  and  no 
one  can  be  in  doubt  about  it,  that  mental  functions  are  very 
much  influenced  by  the  functions  of  the  body,  a  woman  nat- 
urally must  think  differently  from  a  man  as  she  differs  from 
him  in  the  skeleton,  the  muscles,  the  skin,  and  even  in  regard 
to  the  details  of  the  brain. 

The  greatest  difference  of  all  between  man  and  woman  is 
the  structure  and  functions  of  their  respective  sexual  glands,  and 
these,  as  we  have  seen,  exercise  a  very  great  influence  upon  the 
mental  activity.  This  influence  is,  however,  noticeable  in  a 
woman  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  in  a  man.  The  ways  and 
means  of  a  woman's  thinking  are  affected  in  the  highest  degree 
by  impulses  and  influences  taking  their  origin  from  the  sexual 
glands,  and  of  which  she,  herself,  is  frequently  not  aware.  The 
physiological  function  of  her  sexual  glands  alone  affects  a 
woman  bodily  as  well  as  spiritually,  and  that  this  necessarily 
affects  her  thinking  is  quite  natural.  It  also  has  to  be  kept  in 
mind  that  the  sexual  impulse,  in  general,  is  less  vivid  in  women 
than  in  men;  and  in  view  of  the  fact,  moreover,  that  this 
impulse,  as  we  have  already  shown,  has  rather  an  inciting  effect 
upon  thinking  ability,  the  absence  of  it — sexual  coldness — much 
more  frequent  among  women  than  among  men,  may  have  un- 
favorable consequences.  We  also  must  consider  that,  just  on 
account  of  frequently  existing  weakness  and  imperfect  develop- 
ment of  the  sexual  glands,  chlorosis  and  anemia  in  girls  and 
women  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  Such  conditions  are  surely 
deleterious  to  the  circulation  in  the  brain-cortex,  and  manifest 

7  (97) 


98  Human  Intelligence. 


themselves  by  frequently  recurring  fainting  spells  in  such  pa- 
tients. We  also  must  not  forget  that  in  all  domains  of  path- 
ology, besides  morbid  changes  characteristic  of  the  highest 
grades  of  certain  diseases,  there  may  occur  a  great  number  of 
less  developed  stages  of  these  diseases,  the  manifestation  of 
which  does  not  at  once  attract  our  attention. 

If  we  keep  in  mind  this  important  pathological  law  we  are 
able  to  get  a  better  understanding  of  cases  which  seem  to  us 
obscure.  So  much  is  certain,  that  processes  taking  place  in  the 
female  sexual  organs  have  a  decided  influence  upon  the  blood- 
circulation  in  the  body  and  in  the  brain,  and  in  consequence  also 
upon  the  thinking. 

That  the  sexual  sense  in  general  is  less  vivid  in  women 
than  in  men  is  practically  a  very  suitable  arrangement.  If  it 
was  just  as  vivid  they  would  be  less  able  to  resist  the  continual 
wooing  of  men.  The  result  would  be  an  exhaustion  and  a  seri- 
ous injury  to  the  sexual  glands  due  to  overactivity,  and  this 
would  probably  tend  to  render  conception  more  difficult,  and  the 
human  race  would  be  threatened  with  extermination.  From  this 
point  of  view  syphilis  and  other  venereal  diseases  could  be  con- 
sidered as  a  horrifying  measure  used  by  severe  Mother  Nature, 
and  may  be  looked  upon  in  general  as  serving  a  higher  purpose, 
sometimes  even  as  a  beneficial  phenomenon.^  This  speaks  very 
plainly  for  the  moral,  that  the  good  and  the  evil  in  this  world 
are  a  necessity,  and  very  often  serve  a  good  ultimate  purpose. 

Virtue  is,  therefore,  actually  forced  upon  women.  It  is  an 
extreme  necessity!  If  there  were  no  ill  consequences,  virtue 
would  frequently  waver.  Notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  a 
rigid  education  to  deaden  the  sexual  impulse,  the  voice  of  love 
would  triumph  if  the  maiden's  virtue  were  not  strengthened  and 
supported  by  the  fear  of  possible  consequences.  She  is  actually 
driven  to  concealment  and  disguise  of  her  feelings.  This  is  the 
reason  why  the  art  of  disguise  is  developed  in  women  to  its 


1  Lorand,  Old  Age.     See  there  the  argumentation  for  this  view. 


Influence  of  Sexual  Difference.  99 

highest  degree,  and  we  see,  in  fact,  that  women  representing  it 
are  natural-born  actresses,  and  always  attain  a  much  higher 
degree  of  accomplishment  in  dramatic  art  than  men.  Artists, 
such  as  Rachel,  Sarah  Bernhardt,  Duse,  will  never  be  found 
among  men.  The  greatest  female  geniuses  are  generally  found 
in  this  calling.  The  possession  of  the  art  of  disguise  and  per- 
formance is  the  reason  why  the  art  of  imitation  is  much  more 
highly  developed  in  women  than  in  men. 

Women  are  keen  observers,  and  are  particularly  great  in 
observing  fine  details.  This  is  also  the  reason  for  their  mani- 
festing particular  talent  for  the  art  of  painting.  The  number 
of  young  women  able  to  make  a  good  drawing  and  painting  is 
exceedingly  large,  but  when,  however,  we  examine  their  pictures 
we  find  that,  while  all  details  are  admirably  presented,  the  essen- 
tial part  is  lacking ;  there  is  no  life  in  the  picture !  Women  often 
do  great  work  in  painting  flowers,  plants,  landscapes,  etc.,  but 
they  very  seldom  produce  anything  significant  in  their  pic- 
tures of  living  humanity.  Woman's  intelligence  is  more  of  an 
imitative  kind;  she  is  lacking,  more  or  less,  in  creative  abil- 
ity. Artists  like  Velasquez,  Rembrandt,  Raphael,  have  never 
been  found  among  women. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  few  women  artists  like 
Rosa  Bonheur,  and  several  great  artists  whom  I  know  myself, 
manifest  manly  traits.^  Whereas,  figures  and  objects  painted  by 
other  women  show  an  attempt  to  present  the  tender  view  of 
women,  these  women  have  handled  their  brushes  vigorously  like 
a  man,  and  have  put  real  life  into  their  pictures. 

In  music  woman  is  also  able  to  give  a  good  presentation, 
just  as  in  painting;  she  is  able,  here  also,  to  copy  excellently, 
but  in  most  instances,  however,  her  playing  lacks  the  life  and 
vigor  of  that  of  a  man.  In  case  we  have  before  us  a  great 
artist,  then  we  find  her  playing,  not  like  that  of  a  woman,  but 
of  a  man.  She  would  be  able  to  play  wonderfully  well  such 
pieces  as  "Don  Juan  Phantasie,"  by  Liszt,  as  I  saw  it  presented 

2  See  Lorand,  Old  Age, 


100  Human  Intelligence. 


by  a  girl  of  i8  from  Vienna  who  gave  concerts.  She  had  hands 
like  those  of  a  man,  and  played  like  a  full-grown  man.  Never 
has  a  woman's  brain  produced  such  great  compositions  as  those 
of  Beethoven,  Mozart,  Haydn,  Handel,  and  many  others,  just 
as  it  has  never  produced  poetry  to  equal  that  of  Shakespeare, 
Goethe,  and  Schiller.  Many  of  the  renowned  actresses  under- 
stand enough  to  give  masterly  portrayals  of  persons  and  char- 
acters; they  are  able  to  make  the  acts  most  interesting  in  all 
their  details,  but  often  we  find  great  mistakes  in  the  psychology 
of  their  characters.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  act  is  pre- 
sented too  much  from  the  woman's  point  of  view.  A  woman 
gives  her  decision  too  subjectively;  she  looks  upon  everything 
from  the  personal  standpoint;  she  sees  everything  according  to 
her  own  sensations.  She  is,  first  of  all,  a  sensitive  human  being, 
and  the  predominance  of  the  sensitive  point  of  view  influences 
her  judgment.  Like  children,  some  women  base  their  opinion 
upon  a  few  concrete  cases  without  abstracting  it  from  the 
total  number  of  cases.  It  thus  happens  that  many  women 
form  their  opinions  according  to  exceptional  cases  which  they 
have  seen,  whereas  a  man  bases  his  conclusions  upon  the  entire 
number  or  the  majority  of  the  cases.  It  has  frequently  hap- 
pened to  me,  when  I  have  prescribed  some  medicine  for  a 
woman,  to  find  her  objecting  to  it,  because  it  had  not  done  any 
good  to  one  or  the  other  of  her  acquaintances  or  relatives.  It 
is  thus  very  difficult  for  her  to  form  a  general  and  independent 
opinion.  She  bases  it  rather  upon  the  details  of  the  subject, 
often  only  upon  trivial  things.  She  is  unable  to  grasp  the 
cardinal  points,  and  observes  more  the  non-essential  things  and 
forgets  the  more  important  ones.  In  this  respect  her  thinking 
approaches  more  the  thinking  of  a  child,  and  just  the  same  may 
be  said  in  regard  to  her  great  inquisitiveness.  In  fact,  some 
women  remain  all  their  lives  grown-up  children. 

Because  a  woman  pays  such  great  attention  to  trivial  things 
and  devotes  to  them  more  interest  than  necessary,  these  disap- 
pear with  more  difficulty  from  her  memory.    Thus  it  comes  that 


Influence  of  Sexual  Difference.  101 

she  may  feel  a  grudge  against  some  one  on  account  of  some 
small  matter,  which  she  may  not  forgive  nor  forget  for  years, 
and  some  not  for  a  whole  lifetime.  /  would  rather  incur  the 
hatred  of  ten  men  than  of  one  woman. 

However,  just  because  a  woman  devotes  great  personal, 
often  very  warm,  interest  to  small  things,  which  do  not  seem  to 
us  essential,  she  may  become  much  more  interested  in  essential 
matters  serving  higher  ideals,  and  may  become  very  easily 
inspired  with  enthusiasm  for  such  matters. 

A  woman  possesses  the  gift  of  being  able  to  sacrifice  her- 
self. Sometimes  her  motives  are  misunderstood  from  the  man's 
standpoint,  and  are  attributed  to  her  inferior  thinking  ability. 
As  a  very  characteristic  example  I  would  like  to  cite  here  the  case 
of  the  wife  of  General  Lavergne,  born  princess  of  Grimaldi, 
Monaco,  Her  very  old  husband,  deathly  sick,  was  taken,  in  a 
dying  condition,  before  the  revolutionary  tribunal  and  sen- 
tenced to  death.  She,  a  very  young  and  very  beautiful  woman, 
visited  first  the  members  of  the  tribunal  and  the  public  attorney 
Fouquier  Tinville  personally,  and  on  her  knees  begged  for  his 
pardon.  It  was  of  no  avail,  and  the  dying  man  was  sentenced 
to  death.  The  young  wife,  who  was  present  in  the  court-room, 
broke  out  with  the  exclamation,  "Vive  le  roi,"  so  that  she 
could  die  with  her  husband. 

Where  could  a  young  man  be  found  who  would  be  able  to 
do  a  similar  thing  for  his  old,  sick  wife?  I  do  not  think  that 
such  a  one  could  be  found  or  was  ever  born!  But  now  the 
psychological  problem  becomes  more  complex.  On  the  evening 
preceding  her  execution  she  declared  that  she  was  pregnant,  and 
in  consequence  of  it  she  was  pardoned.  On  the  following  day, 
however,  she  wrote  to  Fouquier  Tinville  that  she  had  told  a  lie 
and  did  not  wish  to  buy  her  life  with  a  lie.  As  -a  result  the 
bloodthirsty  man,  who  could  not  do  otherwise,  had  the  unfor- 
tunate young  creature  executed.^ 

It  is  very  difficult  for  us  men  to  understand  the  sphinx-like 

3  A,  Dunoyer,  Fouquier-Tinville,  Paris,  1913. 


102  Human  Intelligence. 


act  of  this  young  woman.  Generally  speaking,  where  is  the  man 
who  could  rightly  understand  the  motives  of  a  woman's  actions  ? 
Her  mode  of  thinking  is  fundamentally  and  entirely  different 
from  ours!  Her  soul  and  nerve-life  is  toned  up  exceedingly 
fine.  If  we  compare  the  nerve-cells  of  the  female  brain-cortex 
and  all  their  conducting  threads  with  a  harp  (this  comparison 
is  probably  not  overdrawn),  then  the  sensitiveness  of  the  strings 
of  that  harp  is  so  exceedingly  fine  that  they  begin  to  sound  on 
the  slightest  possible  motion  of  the  wind,  and,  then  still  continue 
to  resound  for  quite  a  long  time.  Many  impressions,  agreeable 
as  well  as  disagreeable,  even  those  which  are  not  of  an  intense 
kind — even  trivial  things — are  retained  by  a  woman  very  long. 
She  is  for  a  long  time  thankful  for  any  favors  shown,  even  the 
smallest,  as  I  myself  as  a  physician,  and  every  one  of  my  col- 
leagues, have  had  opportunity  to  observe,  whereas  men  forget 
their  physician  very  soon  after  they  are  cured.  Thus,  physicians 
have  very  often  occasion  to  be  thankful  to  women  for  their 
reputations.  Besides  thankfulness  and  fine  feeling,  women  pos- 
sess a  whole  number  of  noble  qualities  which  are  lacking  in  men. 
Unfortunately,  the  feelings  of  a  woman  are  frequently  easily 
displaced  by  new  impressions,  if  they  are  anyway  well  accen- 
tuated. Remember  the  Italian  proverb:  "La  donna  e  mobile." 
And  this,  like  all  proverbs,  speaks  the  truth,  particularly  in 
regard  to  beautiful  women.  Such  a  change  of  their  feelings  is 
very  much  facilitated  by  the  many  temptations  which  may  serve 
as  an  excuse  for  them.  Through  her  many  alliances  a  beautiful 
woman  becomes,  moreover,  spoiled  and  overindulged,  and  her 
vanity  very  strongly  awakened,  and  this  acts  very  unfavorably 
upon  her  mind  and  spirit.  To  this  may  possibly  be  attributed 
the  fact,  frequently  observed,  that  the  mental  faculties  of  women 
are  often  in  directly  opposite  ratio  to  their  external  appearance. 
Those  men  who  select  their  wives  only  on  account  of  their 
external  appearance  really  deserve  the  fate  which  frequently 
befalls  them.  Men  who  allow  themselves  to  be  captivated  by 
the  external  beauty  of  a  woman  without  considering  her  inner 


Influence  of  Sexual  Difference.  103 

graces,  I  consider  as  mentally  inferior,  particularly  when  such 
influence  is  a  lasting  one.  To  the  woman  whose  sole  calling  it 
is  to  be  a  beautiful  woman,  therefore  a  "professional  beauty," 
dressing  and  toilet  hardly  leave  any  time  to  cultivate  her  mind, 
and  in  all  probability  Moebius  had  this  kind  of  overindulged, 
affected  woman  in  mind  when  he  spoke  of  the  psychological 
feeble-mindedness  of  woman.  Of  course,  the  perverted  educa- 
tion, carried  on  through  centuries,  which  only  kept  in  view  the 
external  appearance  of  a  woman  and  neglected  the  cultivation 
of  the  mind,  has  done  its  best  to  develop  such  women.  Now, 
however,  a  new  generation,  very  active  mentally  as  well  as 
bodily,  and  very  intense,  is  growing  up,  and  it  remains  as  an 
open  question  whether  the  right  of  voting  should  be  withheld 
much  longer.  If  women,  however,  want  rights  they  must  also 
take  upon  themselves  responsibilities.  In  my  book  on  rational 
diet  I  have  already  advocated  for  women  the  requirement  of 
one  year  of  service  in  a  military  hospital  and  in  kitchens  of 
public  institutions,  and  here  I  will  add  to  it,  in  the  interest  of 
the  education  of  children  of  the  poor,  also  the  service  in  kinder- 
gartens. 

Those  who  could  not  pass  the  examinations  at  the  end  of 
one  year  should  be  compelled  to  spend  another  year.  To  the 
professional  beauties,  who  lack  knowledge,  an  opportunity  would 
be  given  to  acquire  it;  those  young  women  who  carry  on  the 
lives  of  drones  at  home  should  be  compelled  to  work.  Lazy 
individuals,  male  as  well  as  female,  should  not  be  tolerated  in 
any  modern  State.  Always  being  idle  and  never  doing  a  stroke 
of  work,  either  physical  or  mental,  is  unworthy  of  any  self- 
respecting  human  being.  At  present,  however,  the  number  of 
hard-working  women  and  girls,  both  physically  and  mentally,  is 
constantly  increasing.  Some  take  up  scientific  callings  and  do 
excellent  work  therein.  To  prove  this  I  have  only  to  call  atten- 
tion to  female  colleagues,  who  have  published  results  of  very 
important  investigations.  It  is  interesting,  also,  to  note  that 
some  of  these  women  bear  great  resemblance  to  men  in  their 


104  Human  Intelligence. 


facial  expressions;  for  instance,  if  one  examines  the  picture  of 
a  physician  on  the  frontispiece  in  one  of  the  latest  numbers  of 
the  journal  "Femina"  one  will  notice  this  resemblance.  Her 
profile  is,  in  my  opinion,  rather  a  masculine  one.  This  woman, 
whom  I  have  met  in  a  physiological  laboratory  in  Belgium,  has 
published  some  very  good  papers  on  the  physiolog}"  of  the  nerv- 
ous system.  J\Iany  of  this  type  of  women  dress  like  men;  for 
instance,  Rosa  Bonheur.  Almost  all  female  geniuses,  who  are 
mentally  distinguished,  have  masculine  faces;  as  witness, 
Sand,  Eliot ;  and  some  of  them  also  feel  like  men,  as  Baskirt- 
schefT  describes  it  in  her  diary.  A  great  woman  artist  whom  I 
know,  a  Belgian,  smokes  strong  cigars  like  a  man.  On  the  other 
hand,  according  to  Wilhelm  Fliess,  many  male  geniuses  have  a 
female  trait  in  their  exterior,  or  in  their  feelings.  It  may  be  that 
in  this  trait  of  transition  into  the  other  sex  is  to  be  found  the  key 
to  greatness,  whereby  to  the  qualities  of  one  sex  those  of  the 
other  are  added,  thus  supplementing  them.  This  may  become 
very  valuable.  W^e  see  it  very  distinctly  from  the  great  services 
women  have  rendered  us  in  medicine  as  assistants  in  micro- 
scopic, chemical,  serological,  and  Rontgenological  laboratories. 
Xo  man  can  compete  with  them  in  this  field,  because  their 
senses  are,  in  maii)^  respects,  more  delicate,  and  thus  they  pos- 
sess many  inestimable  qualities  and  abilities  which  in  men  are 
entirely  lacking.  It  is  only  the  will  of  Xature  that  the  female 
qualities  should  supplement  those  of  the  male.  A  woman  is, 
consequently,  the  valuable  supplementary  half  of  the  man. 


III.     HARMFUL  INFLUENCES  UPON  THE  THINKING 

ABILITY  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT  ACCORDING 

TO  THE  NEWER  PRINCIPLES. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

Causes  of  Insanity  and  Their  Prevention. 

Every  man's  future,  in  regard  to  his  physical  as  well  as 
mental  condition,  is,  in  the  main,  undoubtedly  predestined 
already  at  his  birth.  The  fate  of  the  man  is  often  outlined  in 
the  germ  from  which  he  originates.  It  rests  like  a  burden  upon 
the  man,  that  he  must  atone  bitterly  for  the  sins  of  immodera- 
tion of  his  parents,  grandparents,  and  even  great-grandparents, 
and  the  curse  of  these  sins  still  pursues  him  even  to  the 
third  generation.  Woe  to  him  if  he  is  born  the  offspring  of 
syphilitic  parents,  or  those  addicted  to  the  use  of  alcohol — if 
he  is  a  child  of  habitual  drinkers.  Frequently  he  comes  to  the 
world  badly  crippled  physically,  and  still  more  so  mentally.  It 
is  noticeable  that  the  mentality  is  the  more  affected.  Probably 
this  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  man  is,  just  in  respect 
to  mental  development,  standing  on  a  higher  level  than  animals. 

Of  course,  such  a  congenitally  heavily  burdened  offspring 
is  frequently  found  occupying  a  position  not  very  much  remote 
from  the  animal.  These  highly  idiotic  subjects  frequently  have 
devil-like  faces,  are  entirely  helpless,  often  blind  and  paralyzed, 
entirely  deprived  of  their  senses,  discharging  their  bodily  func- 
tions in  bed,  damned  by  those  around  them.  Such  monsters  fill 
entire  wards  in  some  insane  asylums,  and  mentally  they  stand 
below  the  animal.  They  represent  the  personification  of  the 
curse  which  rests  upon  them  through  the  fault  of  their  pro- 
genitors. 

(105) 


106  Human  Intelligence. 


If,  therefore,  an  attempt  is  made  to  reduce  the  number  o£ 
insane  to  a  considerable  extent,  then  all  possible  means  should 
be  used  to  prevent  all  individuals,  who  are  not  cured  from 
syphilis,  or  who  are  habitual  drinkers,  or  mentally  diseased, 
from  entering  matrimony.  It  is  indeed  remarkable  that  the 
State,  which  has  vast  numbers  of  compulsory  means,  does  not 
make  use  of  them  in  regard  to  this,  particularly  when  we  think 
how  many  millions  could  be  saved  in  this  way.  The  simplest 
thing  would  be  to  examine  the  blood  for  syphilis,  by  means  of  the 
A\'assermann  reaction,  of  every  matrimonial  candidate.  A 
physical  and  a  mental  examination  should  also  be  made  to  find 
out  whether  w^e  have  to  deal  with  an  habitual  drinker.  Grave 
tuberculosis  and  malaria  should  also  be  excluded.  It  has  been 
frequently  found  that  the  thyroid  gland  in  newborn  children 
of  such  parents  shows  grave,  degeneration,  and  we  have  already 
considered  the  great  importance  which  the  development  of  this 
organ  has  upon  the  mental  and  not  less  upon  the  physical  well- 
being  of  the  child  in  the  future. 

The  signs  of  weakness  of  the  thyroid  gland  are  present  in 
many  such  children,  who  also  are  retarded  in  their  growth 
and  in  their  physical  and  mental  development.  They  become, 
very  often,  feeble-minded  in  a  higher  or  lower  degree  (cretins). 
Their  physical  appearance  we  have  already  described.  The 
causes  for  this  congenital  weakness  of  the  thyroid  are  diseases 
of  the  parents  which  act  unfavorably  upon  the  offspring,  such 
as  syphilis,  alcohol,  tuberculosis,  and  various  infectious  dis- 
eases in  general;  also  some  diseases  of  metabolism  and  sexual 
excesses. 

Such  children  are  predestined  to  feeble-mindedness,  if  they 
are  not  already  cretins  or  idiots.  If  they  should  happen  to 
contract  any  of  the  infectious  diseases  frequently  occurring  in 
children,  a  total  micntal  ruin  rapidly  develops. 

Fortunately  we  do  not  lack  remedies  to  prevent  such  fatal 
development.  Such  children  urgently  need  thyroid  treatment. 
It  should  be  started  with  very  small  doses  and  continued  as  it 


Causes  of  Insanity.  107 


is  described  in  Chapter  XXIX.  Many  feeble-minded  children, 
who  are  either  born  as  such  or  have  developed  the  condition  dur- 
ing childhood,  originate  from  mentally  diseased  parents.  This 
origin  plays  a  very  great  role  as  the  cause  of  mental  diseases-, 
as  can  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  almost  every  third  case  of 
mental  disease  is  due  to  this  cause.  It  either  sets  in  during 
childhood  or  is  developed  later  in  consequence  of  the  action  of 
one  of  the  favoring  causes,  which  we  will  describe  later. 

According  to  Mott's  investigations,  mental  diseases  in  chil- 
dren manifest  themselves  at  an  earlier  age  than  in  their  parents. 
When,  therefore,  children  have  reached  a  certain  stage  of 
development  they  have  a  chance  to  escape  the  terrible  fate 
threatening  them,  and  their  chances  improve  with  advancement 
of  their  age.  Daughters  are  much  more  threatened  than  sons. 
In  general  the  chances  are  the  better  the  older  the  parents  were 
when  they  became  mentally  diseased. 

The  raising  of  such  children,  physically  as  well  as  mentally, 
demands  particular  care.  All  directions  for  leading  a  healthy 
life — which  I  have  given  in  my  book  "Old  Age" — would  have 
to  be  followed.  Particularly,  everything  has  to  be  done  to  pre- 
vent as  much  as  possible  in  such  hereditarily  predisposed  children 
the  development  of  infectious  diseases,  because  such  diseases 
may  have  a  very  bad  effect  on  the  ductless  glands,  particularly 
on  the  thyroid,  and  this  may  retard  the  mental  development  and 
bring  about  feeble-mindedness.  It  is  very  difficult  to  point  out 
certain  rules  for  that  purpose,  because  we  constantly,  day  and 
night,  introduce  into  our  systems  millions  of  injurious  bacteria, 
either  with  the  air  or  with  the  food.  We  are  able,  however,  to 
use  prevention,  either  by  increasing  the  resisting  power  of  our 
bodies  by  hygienic  modes  of  living,  by  inhaling  plenty  of  pure 
air,  by  proper  nourishment,  etc. ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  also  by 
avoiding  as  much  as  possible  such  localities  in  which  the  quan- 
tity of  bacteria  is  increasing  manifold  above  normal,  such  as 
rooms  overheated  with  steam  or  impregnated  with  smoke,  and 
where  hundreds  and  thousands  of  people  gather  together.     The 


108  Human  Intelligence. 


dark  dwellings  in  cities,  wherein  the  sun  never  penetrates,  are 
frequently  the  breeding  places  for  bacteria,  and  are  particularly 
inappropriate  places  for  children  of  mentally  diseased  parents. 
Most  particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  regulating  of  the 
diet.  Growing  children  who  are  still  studying  must,  in  the  first 
place,  receive  sufficient  quantities  of  nourishment,  particularly  of 
substances  which  are  rich  in  albumin,  phosphorus  and  calcium 
salts.  Badly  nourished  children  are,  as  a  rule,  most  easily  apt 
to  become  victims  of  tuberculosis  as  the  result  of  insufficient 
nourishment,  as  I  pointed  out  in  the  chapter  on  "Tuberculosis" 
in  my  book  on  "Rational  Diet."  Just  as  it  is  for  the  body,  so 
is  insufficient  nourishment  also  injurious  for  the  mind,  possibly 
even  in  a  still  higher  degree.  The  desire  to  study  thus  meets 
with  difficulties  right  at  its  beginning,  and  in  the  hereditarily 
predisposed,  if  compulsory  means  should  be  employed,  mental 
diseases  may  very  easily  break  out. 

A  very  dangerous  period  for  such  children  is  the  time  of 
the  beginning  of  puberty.  Very  often  in  boys,  and  still  more  in 
girls,  as  we  have  mentioned  heretofore,  psychical  disturbances 
make  their  appearance,  such  as  attacks  of  melancholia,  suicidal 
ideas,  wandering  inclinations.  From  young  girls  we  can  often 
hear  the  expression,  "How  beautiful  it  would  be  to  die."  Just 
because  in  girls  the  inheritance  of  mental  diseases  is,  as  already 
mentioned,  much  more  frequent,  we  must  pay  particular  atten- 
tion to  them.  Because  of  the  fact  that  such  girls  so  often  have 
a  congenital  weakness  of  the  ovaries,  an  ovarian  insufficiency, 
disturbances  of  menstruation,  dysmenorrhea  or  amenorrhea 
occurs  very  often  among  them.  And  when  they  get  married, 
then  their  real  troubles  just  begin.  In  the  first  place,  many  of 
them,  on  account  of  the  weak  ovaries,  have  no  children,  or,  in 
case  they  do  have  children,  pregnancy  and  also  delivery  and 
lactation  expose  them  to  many  miseries.  Not  rarely  after  con- 
ception a  vomiting  which  cannot  be  stopped  takes  place;  and  in 
further  course,  disturbances  of  the  mind — psychoses  of  preg- 
nancy— occur,  and  the  same  may  also  be  found  after  delivery. 


Causes  of  Insanity.  109 


When  such  troubles  occur,  particularly  in  women  with  heredi- 
tary predisposition  to  mental  diseases,  every  time  after  concep- 
tion the  question  may  justly  be  raised  whether  an  abortion 
would  not  be  indicated.  This  is  particularly  the  case  when,  on 
account  of  the  form  of  the  pelvis  or  for  other  reasons,  a  difficult 
delivery  may  be  predicted.  In  view  of  the  fact,  moreover,  that 
under  the  circumstances  the  outbreak  of  mental  disease  is  par- 
ticularly threatening,  and,  even  at  best,  the  prognosis  for  the 
physical  as  well  as  the  mental  conditions  of  the  newborn  is  not 
a  good  one,  a  gynecologist  should  be  consulted  in  regard  to  the 
advisability  of  inducing  an  abortion,  the  same  as  is  practised  in 
case  of  heart  diseases.  Generally,  such  women  should  be  kept 
under  control  of  a  gynecologist;  also  girls  having  any  kind  o£ 
disease  of  the  sexual  organs,  as  these  are  very  frequently  the 
seat  of  origin  of  mental  diseases,  particularly  of  "dementia 
prsecox"  so  frequently  occurring  among  younger  subjects.  We 
have  already  stated  that  in  women,  as  well  as  in  men,  suffering 
from  dementia  prsecox  there  may  be  found  undeveloped  or 
otherwise  changed  sexual  organs,  and  also  imperfect  develop- 
ment of  secondary  sexual  characters,  as  the  breasts,  the  beard, 
etc.  According  to  my  own  observations  treatment  with  tablets 
of  ovarian  substance  and  the  simultaneous  use  of  thyroid  tab- 
lets may  be  combined  in  cases  of  continuous  vomiting  in  women ; 
also  in  sterility,  and  in  absence  of  menstruation  due  to  weak- 
ness of  the  ovaries.  Similar  results  have  been  reported  by  others. 
Anemia  and  chlorosis,  so  often  found  in  women,  are  very 
often  due  to  weakness  of  the  ovaries,  as  has  been  stated  by  von 
Noorden^  and  others.  No\V  we  know  that  anemia  may  not 
rarely  give  origin  to  mental  diseases  by  being  the  cause  of 
insufficient  blood-supply  to  the  brain-cortex.  Therefore,  as  soon 
as  the  first  symptoms  of  anemia  become  noticeable  in  girls  with 
a  hereditary  predisposition  to  mental  diseases,  they  must  be  fed 
abundantly  witb.  food  containing  iron.     The  best  way  to  admin- 

1  Lorand,  Old  Age,  on  the  influence  of  the  ovaries  and  blood-formation 
and  of  the  administration  of  iron. 


110  Human  Intelligence^ 

ister  iron  and  arsenic  would  be  in  the  form  of  mineral  waters  con- 
taining iron  and  arsenic.  Often  these  individuals  are  very  weak, 
and  it  is,  therefore,  indicated  that  these  remedies  be  adminis- 
tered before  the  symptoms  of  anemia  appear,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  latter. 

In  the  offspring  of  mentally  diseased,  as  well  as  nervous 
hysterical  parents  there  is  often  found  a  very  strong  sexual 
instinct.  Onanism  is  commonly  found  among  them,  and  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  too  much  of  the  latter  is  very  injurious  in  such 
children  and  may  pave  the  way  to  mental  diseases,  appropriate 
treatment  for  it  should  be  instituted. 

Blood  congestion  to  the  pelvic  organs,  caused  by  constipa- 
tion, leads  not  rarely  to  diseases  of  these  organs.  Constipation 
should,  therefore,  be  avoided,  not  only  on  account  of  that,  but 
also  on  account  of  the  pernicious  influence  of  the  poisonous  sub- 
stances which  find  their  way  into  the  blood  and  have  a  toxic 
effect  upon  the  brain-centers.  Daily  evacuations  must  become 
the  custom  in  childhood,  because  even  in  adults  who  are  predis- 
posed to  mental  diseases,  constipation  may  lead  to  very  bad  con- 
sequences. In  adults  sometimes  a  state  of  confusion  may  be 
found  due  to  obstinate  constipation. 

The  spiritual  and  mental  sides  in  the  education  must  par- 
ticularly be  taken  into  consideration.  Children  of  mentally  dis- 
eased and  also  of  nervous  parents,  of  neurasthenics  and  hysterics 
are,  as  a  rule,  also  nervous.  Nothing  could  be  more  harmful 
than  to  make  these  children  more  nervous  by  threatened  punish- 
ment. As  has  been  mentioned  repeatedly  in  this  book,  nothing 
develops  neurasthenia  so  quickly  as  fear  and  anxiety  in  regard 
to  coming  dangers.  If  neurasthenia  and  hysteria,  to  which  chil- 
dren are  generally  predisposed,  once  become  manifest,  then,  for 
children  who  are  predisposed  by  heredity,  the  chances  to  become 
mentally  diseased  would  rapidly  increase. 

It  has  been  observed  in  many  cases  that  children  who  had 
been  threatened  by  their  nurses  with  devils  or  the  policeman, 
and  who  were  badly  frightened,  suddenly  became  mentally  dis- 


Causes  of  Insanity.  Ill 


eased,  or  became  afflicted  with  epilepsy  or  convulsions.  Sim- 
ilarly first  epileptic  attacks  in  children  have  been  caused,  for 
instance,  by  suddenly  directing  a  stream  of  cold  water  toward 
them  from  behind. 

Threats  of  punishment  or  actual  punishment  of  such  chil- 
dren In  schools  should  therefore  be  studiously  avoided.  It  Is 
better  to  bring  them  up  privately  In  their  homes  under  strong 
parental  supervision,  and  in  this  way  also  prevent  them  from 
coming  in  contact  with  bad  influences  of  schoolmates.  It  must 
be  continually*  kept  in  mind  that  such  children  are  more  prone 
to  imitate  bad  examples  than  would  those  of  stronger  mentality. 

Nothing  could  be  more  injurious  than  to  overburden  such 
children  In  school.  Usually  In  these  hereditarily  predisposed 
young  men,  for  whom  mental  strain  is  particularly  harmful, 
mental  diseases  manifest  themselves  before  examinations.  It 
would  also  be  a  mistake  to  educate  them  for  a  career  which 
taxes  the  nervous  system  too  much,  such  as  that  of  a  diplomat, 
judge,  physician,  lawyer,  or  any  occupation  which  puts  too 
great  a  strain  on  the  nervous  vitality.  The  best  career  for  a 
person  of  this  kind  would  be  In  a  private  employment,  where 
the  work  is  the  same  every  day,  and  nothing  exciting  would  be 
likely  to  occur ;  and  where,  at  the  same  time,  the  responsibilities 
would  not  weigh  upon  him  as  in  the  case,  for  Instance,  of  an 
officer  compelled  to  perform  faithfully  the  duties  of  his  position, 
or  that  of  a  judge. 

Also  In  adults.  In  whose  progenitors  mental  diseases  have 
been  known  to  occur,  sudden  attacks  of  mental  disease,  after 
great  mental  excitement,  are  not  at  all  rare.  Of  course,  the 
prospects  are  much  brighter  for  adults  to  escape  a  fate  of  this 
kind  than  for  those  of  more  youthful  years.  If  they  have 
passed  the  perilous  period  of  puberty  and  school  graduation 
safely,  the  prospects  for  a  happy  future  improve  day  by  day. 
Nevertheless,  in  the  years  to  come  they  have  to  learn  to  avoid 
not  only  mental  excitement,  but  also  the  influence  of  toxic  prod- 
ucts of  metabolism.      Such  products,   especially  uric   acid  and 


112  Human  Intelligence. 


sugar  may,  in  individuals  predisposed  to  it,  cause,  as  has  been 
mentioned,  an  outbreak  of  mental  disease.  First  of  all  they 
have  to  avoid  infection  with  syphilis,  as  they  are  strongly  threat- 
ened with  progressive  paralysis  or  tabes.  They  must  further 
avoid  alcohol ;  if  this  is  harmful  in  adults  it  is  still  more  so  in 
children,  and  especially  in  those  who  are  predisposed  by  heredity. 

Children  should  never  be  given  alcohol;  only  beer  can  be 
given  to  youths  in  case  they  have  a  desire  for  it,  but  only  in 
small  quantities.  Even  then  the  danger  still  remains  that  such 
hereditarily  predisposed  children  may  not  be  able  to  control 
themselves  and  withstand  the  temptations  to  excess. 

Alcohol  in  any  form  is  for  such  individuals  a  poison.  Also 
in  regard  to  other  excitants,  as  coffee,  tea,  tobacco,  caution  in 
such  individuals  is  indicated. 

Sexual  excesses  are  deleterious  to  the  offspring  of  the 
mentally  diseased.  Early  marriage  is  therefore  beneficial. 
Marriage  with  relatives  must,  however,  always  be  excluded, 
except  with  distant  relatives  in  whose  families  mental  diseases 
have  never  occurred.  In  such  marriages  it  may  also  be  taken 
into  consideration,  whether  the  mental  disease  in  the  parents  or 
grandparents  was  manifest  before  the  child  was  born  or  after; 
also  the  nature  of  the  disease  is  to  be  considered.  If  the  parents 
have,  for  instance,  acquired  syphilis  after  the  child  was  bom 
and  have  developed  paralytic  insanity  ten  to  twenty  years  later, 
the  question  of  heredit};-  is  naturally  out  of  consideration.  It  is 
also  well  understood  that  mental  diseases  caused  by  arterio- 
sclerosis are  of  no  significance  for  the  offspring.  This  is 
entirely  different  with  mental  diseases  which  have  already 
occurred  during  youth, — for  example,  epilepsy. 

Of  great  importance  for  children  of  the  mentally  diseased 
is  the  regulation  of  their  sleep.  Insomnia  must  be  combated 
with  all  available  means,  as  this  promotes  neurasthenia  and 
hysteria,  and  aggravates  their  symptoms.  It  is  assumed  that 
through  long-continued  insomnia  very  often  there  is  an  outbreak 
of  mental  disease  even  in  those  not  hereditarily  predisposed.    A 


Causes  of  Insanity.  113 


mining  engineer  of  40  years  of  age  related  to  me  that  once,  after 
he  had  not  slept  for  four  nights,  and  also  previous  to  that  time 
had  had  to  get  up  at  2  or  3  o'clock  in  the  morning  to  overlook 
the  shaft,  he  arrived  at  such  a  stage  of  exaltation  that  he  was 
put  in  an  insane  asylum,  and  remained  there  for  three  years. 
Eating,  smoking,  and  also  drinking,  to  a  certain  extent,  had 
something  to  do  with  it.  Hereditary  disposition  was  denied.  It 
has  to  be  taken  into  consideration  that  in  children  mentally 
diseased  the  road  to  insanity  leads  through  neurasthenia  and 
hysteria.  First,  the  latter  are  acquired,  and  then,  under  circum- 
stances which  favor  it,  mental  disease  may  develop.  We  have, 
however,  thank  God,  the  means  to  prevent  the  latter  in  most 
instances  by  guiding  the  education  of  these  offspring  in  an 
intelligent  way  and  using  hygienic  and  therapeutic  measures 
such  as  are  described  in  this  and  Chapter  XXIII.  As  stated,  it  is 
necessary,  besides  other  preventive  measures,  tO'  combat  insomnia 
with  the  means  mentioned  in  Chapter  XV.  The  best  results  are 
obtained  by  daily  physical  exercises,  frequent  walks,  trips,  moder- 
ation in  mental  work,  etc. 

If,  nevertheless,  certain  suspicious  mental  symptoms  should 
become  manifest,  much  harm  can  be  prevented  by  institution  of 
appropriate  treatment  at  once.  First  of  all,  stopping  of  all 
work,  particularly  mental,  must  be  demanded.  It  Is  true  that 
in  some  mental  diseases  It  is  very  difficult  to  make  a  diagnosis 
at  its  beginning,  and  it  can  be  made  only  after  careful  observa- 
tion ;  it  Is  easier  to  make  the  diagnosis,  however,  when  heredi- 
tary predisposition  is  established. 

Those  who  are  not  hereditarily  predisposed  to  mental  dis- 
eases and  had  no  accidents  during  birth,  and  also  had  no  dis- 
ease of  the  brain  or  of  its  membranes,  may  acquire  mental 
diseases  through  the  following  two  causes:  (i)  syphilis;  (2) 
alcohol.  If  they  become  Infected  with  syphilis,  then,  even  If 
they  are  apparently  cured  by  the  use  of  salvarsan  or  mercury 
or  Iodine,  or  by  the  combination  of  all,  it  Is  necessary  that  the 
above-mentioned   conditions,   which   favor  the  development   of 


114  Human  Intelligence. 

mental  diseases,  should  be  avoided,  particularly  the  use  of  the 
strong  alcoholic  drinks.  Nothing  can  produce  mental  disturb- 
ance so  easily,  even  in  one  not  hereditarily  predisposed,  as  the 
combination  of  these  two  main  factors.  The  most  dreadful 
mental  disease  may  then  break  out,  paralytic  insanity;  also  a 
great  number  of  other  mental  diseases  may  develop  in  conse- 
quence of  it.  Either  syphilis  or  alcohol,  alone,  is  very  liable 
to  cause  disturbance  of  mental  faculties,  by  producing  changes 
in  the  blood-vessels  of  the  brain.  Both  belong  to  the  most  fre- 
quent causes  of  insanity ;  but  when  they  act  together  the  potency 
of  the  consequence  is  so  much  greater.  It  is  still  more  certain 
in  cases  where  deficient  or  irrational  feeding,  sexual  excesses, 
mental  shock,  add 'their  heavy  weight  on  the  scale.  Without 
such  causes,  mental  disease  hardly  ever  develops  in  those  not 
predisposed  by  heredity.  Almost  always  it  results  as  a  conse- 
quence of  great  errors  or  negligence  in  the  mode  of  living,  due 
to  the  faults  of  the  individual  himself  or  more  or  less  distant 
progenitors. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

The  Influence  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Mental  Faculties. 

The  dreadful  scourge  of  mankind  is  alcohol,  the  worthy 
brother  of  syphilis.  It  is  the  accomplice  of  the  horrible  plague, 
as  it  prepares  the  soil,  by  undermining  the  natural  human  resist- 
ing power.  If  an  individual  is  once  affected  by  the  disease,  then 
it  is  mainly  the  indulgence  of  alcohol  which  makes  a  cure  diffi- 
cult or  impossible.  The  unfortunates  are  then  so  much  more 
liable  to  become  the  victims  of  the  dreadful  sequelae  of  the  ruin 
of  mind  and  body  caused  by  syphilis,  softening  of  the  brain  and 
tabes. 

The  great  significance  of  alcohol  in  paving  the  way  for 
mental  diseases  can  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  many  of  the  in- 
mates of  insane  asylums  are  recruited  from  the  sphere  of  drunk- 
ards. In  some  large  cities,  as  in  Berlin,  for  example,  almost 
half  of  the  cases  of  insanity  can  be  credited  to  the  use  of  alcohol. 
According  to  E.  Meyer,^  20  to  30  per  cent,  of  all  cases  admitted 
to  insane  asylums  in  Prussia  are  produced  by  alcohol.  In  visit- 
ing various  insane  asylums  I  have  found  it  confirmed  that  a 
considerable  number  of  the  inmates  manifest  signs  of  diseases 
consequent  on  alcohol  use,  or  that  the  alcohol  was  co-operative 
in  the  development  of  insanity.  The  most  horrible  collection  of 
this  kind  I  found  in  France,  where  absinthe,  that  most  dreadful 
mind  destroyer,  was  the  cause. 

A  most  effective  way  to  keep  men  from  developing  the 
alcohol  habit  would  probably  be  the  use  of  a  most  horrifying 
remedy  by  taking  the  would-be  victims  around  the  wards  of 
insane  asylums  and  showing  them  the  cases  which  are  directly 
or  indirectly  due  to  the  use  of  alcohol.  The  thing  that  is  still 
more  terrible  is,  that  not  only  the  drunkard  himself  has  to  atone 


1  E.  Meyer,  Die  Ursachen  der  Geisteskrankheit,  Jena,  1907. 

(115) 


116  Human  Intelligence. 


for  it,  but  his  children  too  must  suffer,  and  some  of  them  may 
also  be  found  in  asylums  in  which  their  fathers  have  been 
inmates.  High-grade  idiots,  feeble-minded  of  various  forms, 
epileptics, — they  all,  or  the  most  of  them,  can  accuse  their 
alcoholic  or  syphilitic  fathers  or  mothers  for  bringing  them  into 
the  world  to  be  a  burden  to  themselves  and  to  their  fellow-men. 
Their  support  during  decades  is  an  expense  of  millions  to  the 
State,  and  what  forms  not  the  least  offense  to  abstainers  and 
anti-alcoholics  is  that  they  have  to  supply  the  necessary  money 
to  pay  the  tax  for  the  support  of  the  children  of  the  drunkards 
who  are  unable  to  support  themselves.  And  even  in  case  the 
children  of  the  drunkards  are  born  apparently  healthy  in  mind 
and  body,  they  already  inherit  the  drinking  desire,  as  proved 
in  the  great  majority  of  cases.  Under  the  influence  of  their 
surroundings,  naturally  almost  in  every  case  a  new  drunkard  is 
again  created,  and  thus  the  vicious  circle  continues.  In  such 
families,  then,  alcohol,  syphilis,  and  various  other  vices  naturally 
join  hands;  and  the  insane  asylums,  prisons,  hospitals,  homes 
for  incurables  at  last  become  their  homes  and  resting-places  in 
their  declining  days. 

I  have  already  emphasized  in  my  previous  writings^  that 
the  normal  man  does  not  drink  above  his  thirst,  and  that  the 
drunkard  also  does  not  drink  because  he  finds  particular  pleas- 
ure in  it,  but  because  he  has  an  impulse  for  it,  an  unconquerable, 
morbid  desire  for  it  which  can  best  be  expressed  in  the  English 
word  "craving."  The  foundation  which  causes  that  impulse  is 
already  a  morbid  manifestation  in  the  body,  as  it  is  found  most 
frequently  in  depressed  conditions  of  persons  suffering  from 
inactivity  of  the  thyroid  gland,  myxedema  or  related  forms. 
They  are  always  in  bad  humor,  as  is  the  case  with  many  epilep- 
tics, and  the  next  nearest  consequence  naturally  is  that  they  take 
to  drink.  The  children  of  such  patients  are  born  also,  as  a  rule, 
with  a  deficiency  in  the  development  of  the  thyroid  gland,  and 


2Lorand,  Old  Age,  chapter:   Causes  of  Alcoholism. 


Influence  of  Alcohol.  117 

thus  we  can  explain  the  hereditary  disposition  of  the  alcohoHcs. 
I  want  to  call  attention  particularly  to  the  quantity  of  alcohol 
which  individuals  suffering  from  weakness  of  the  thyroid  gland 
can  stand,  frequently  even  delicate  women,  and  this  naturally 
increases  the  desire  for  it.  By  the  fact  that  alcoholics  have  chil- 
dren with  degenerated  thyroid  gland,  the  thought  that  there  is 
a  close  connection  between  alcoholism  and  myxedema  becomes 
more  probable;  the  former  makes  a  most  fruitful  soil  for  the 
latter.  It  attacks  the  thyroid,  as  is.  shown  by  the  investigation  of 
Quervain  and  Aeschbacher,  and  causes  its  degeneration;  and  this 
in  its  turn  is  inherited  by  the  offspring,  the  same  as  all  degen- 
erative changes  of  the  ductless  glands  are,  as  has  been  repeat- 
edly mentioned,  transmitted  by  inheritance.  This,  therefore,  ex- 
plains the  heredity  of  thyroid  degeneration  and,  based  upon  it, 
also  of  the  alcoholism. 

Now,  if  alcohol  causes  the  destruction  of  the  thyroid, 
changes  of  the  mental  faculties  must  also  naturally  follow. 
Such  changes  often  develop  only  years  after  the  action  of  the 
alcohol  has  continually  taken  place,  the  same  as  other  diseases 
which  develop  on  the  basis  of  thyroid  degenerations  become 
manifest  only  after  years.  It  is  quite  natural  that  the  alcohol 
acts  directly  upon  the  brain-cortex  similarly  to  other  toxic 
substances,  namely,  by  affecting  the  nerve-cells  of  the  cortex. 
Grave  disturbances  of  mind  become,  however,  manifest  only 
years  later,  probably  through  disturbances  of  metabolism  caused 
by  deficiency  of  thyroid  activity. 

Whether  alcohol  is  used  occasionally  or  regularly  in  large 
quantities,  it  will  always  affect  the  mentality.  This  is  partic- 
ularly clear  during  intoxication.  Depending  on  the  resisting 
power  of  the  central  nervous  system  of  the  various  individuals, 
intoxication  may  be  produced  by  smaller  or  larger  quantities  of 
alcohol.  But  even  when  alcohol  is  taken  only  in  small  quanti- 
ties, and  even  only  occasionally,  it  is  certain  that,  according  to 
the  investigation  of  Kraepelin  and  his  collaborators,  in  such 
instances  also  mental  faculties  may  suffer;  this  is  seen  from  the 


118  Human  Intelligence. 


less  favorable  results  given  by  the  experiments  with  time  reac- 
tion. I  want  to  mention  particularly  that  alcohol,  even  in  small 
quantities  and  only  in  form  of  wine,  may  reduce  in  many 
individuals  the  fineness  in  the  perceptive  power  of  the  senses.  I, 
therefore,  consider  it  better  for  mental  workers  to  refrain  from 
the  use  of  alcohol  as  much  as  possible.  It  may  stimulate  fancy, 
but  positively  affects  the  power  of  criticism  by  reducing 
the  acuteness  of  the  senses.  If  in  my  previous  writings  I  had 
no  reason  to  prohibit  the  occasional  use  of  wine  or  beer  in  small 
quantities,  which  brought  me  many  reproaches  from  anti-alco- 
holics, I  do  not  hesitate  to  express  my  opinion  here,  that  in  men- 
tal work,  particularly  when  it  concerns  the  perception  of  delicate 
differences,  even  small  quantities  of  alcohol  may  be  embarrass- 
ing. 

For  school-children  the  use  of  alcohol  must  be  by  all  means 
prohibited,  A  child  is  much  more  susceptible  to  alcohol  than 
the  adult,  because  its  ductless  glands,  which  have  an  antitoxic 
effect,  are  not  yet  developed.  Their  development  takes  place 
only  during  puberty,  and  it  is,  therefore,  not  surprising  that 
children  who  partake  of  alcohol  at  all,  even  when  not  daily, 
become  backward  in  school,  as  is  seen  from  various  school  sta- 
tistics. The  last  report  of  the  school  physicians  in  Berlin  shows 
that  of  the  children  who  have  received  unsatisfactory  marks  in 
school,  24,9  per  cent,  boys  and  8.3  per  cent,  girls  never  or  only 
rarely  received  alcohol ;  of  those  who  received  whisky  once  a 
week,  3 1. 1  per  cent,  boys  and  16.5  per  cent,  girls  had  bad  marks, 
and  of  those  who  received  whisky  daily  60.5  per  cent,  boys  and 
55  per  cent,  girls  had  marks  below  the  required  standard. 

Bayr's  investigations  of  591  school-children  in  Vienna 
revealed  that  of  134  not  drinking,  only  12  (9  per  cent.)  had 
low  marks;  164,  occasional,  15  (9.1  per  cent.)  had  low  marks; 
219,  beer  once  daily,  39  (13  per  cent.)  had  low  marks;  71, 
beer  twice  daily,  13  (18  per  cent.)  had  low  marks;  3,  beer 
thrice  daily,  2  (66  per  cent.)  had  low  marks. 

In  the  Beitrdge  zur  Kinderfiirsorge  und   Heilerziehung, 


Influence  of  ^Alcohol.  119 

published  by  Triiper,  in  Jena,  are  reported  cases  by  Schauer  of 
children,  capable  and  even  talented  from  birth,  who  have  mani- 
fested lasting  and  grave  injuries  to  their  mental  faculties  alone 
caused  by  the  use  of  alcohol.  He  reports  a  case  of  a  6-year-old 
boy,  who  was  very  bright  and  who  had  remarkable  judgment 
and  ability.  After  a  while  he  became  very  easily  tired,  his 
attention  became  reduced  to  an  abnormal  degree,  and  his  written 
home  work  became  entirely  useless.  It  was  found  that  the  boy, 
whose  father  was  a  coachman,  received  whisky  daily  from  his 
colleagues,  and  in  this  way  the  formerly  very  bright  boy  was 
ruined  entirely.  Schauer  observed  in  such  children  an  impulsive 
craving  for  alcohol  and  all  manifested  feeble-mindedness. 

Often  children  of  the  lower  classes  receive  whisky  from 
their  fathers,  and  this  may  not  only  kill  the  good  qualities  which 
may  be  present  originally  and  develop  worse  ones  instead,  but 
by  its  deleterious  effect  upon  the  thyroid  gland,  the  sexual 
glands,  the  liver  and  kidneys,  it  ruins  them  also  physically,  and 
by  also  injuring  the  bony  structure  causes  them  to  be  backward 
in  their  growth.  If  there  is  a  hereditary  disposition  to  epilepsy, 
feeble-mindedness,  etc.,  in  such  children  it  is  made  more  potent, 
and  such  diseases,  if  they  are  already  present,  become  more 
aggravated.  According  to  experiments  of  Laitinen,  immunity 
through  the  use  of  alcohol  is  reduced,  and  such  children  become 
susceptible  in  a  very  high  degree  to  all  infectious  diseases. 

In  view  of  crimes  of  this  nature  so  often  committed  on 
children,  either  by  their  fathers  or  mothers,  or  other  adults,  the 
question  naturally  arises  whether  a  law  should  not  be  enacted 
which,  under  heavy  penalty,  would  prohibit  the  giving  of  alcohol 
to  children,  particularly  in  the  form  of  whisky.  It  would 
indeed  suffice  if  in  these  cases  the  laws  against  assault  and  bat- 
tery should  be  applied,  as  it  unquestionably  embraces  the  inten- 
tional injury  of  the  health  of  the  children.  It  would  be 
most  rational  if  children,  whose  parents  are  habitual  drunk- 
ards and  have  already  been  punished  for  drunkenness,  should  be 
taken  away  from  their  parents   and  brought  up  in  orphans' 


120  Human  Intelligence. 


homes.  Should  the  State  consent  to  that  it  would  profit  by 
it,  as  it  would  bring  up  useful  citizens,  fit  soldiers,  and  would 
save  every  dollar  spent  at  present  on  hospitals,  insane  asylums 
and  penitentiaries.  Parents  who  are  habitual  drunkards  and 
criminals  have  deprived  themselves  of  the  right  to  own  and  dis- 
pose of  their  own  children,  and  they  should  not  be  permitted  to 
drive  their  children  into  certain  misery,  and  deliver  them  to 
insane  asylums  and  hospitals  or  jails.  Here,  again,  I  take  the 
opportunity,  as  I  have  done  in  my  other  writings,  to  call  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  we  have  sufficient  prohibition  laws  already, 
but  what  we  urgently  need  is  a  number  of  preventive  measures 
and  laws.  Such  laws  partly  exist  in  England,  and  in  some  of 
the  American  States.  Those  who  are  unworthy  of  propagation 
are  castrated,  fortunately,  before  they  have  had  a  chance  to 
become  parents. 

Although  the  consequences  of  the  use  of  alcohol  are  not  as 
bad  in  adults  as  they  are  in  children,  unless  in  the  case  of  great 
drunkards,  yet  in  many  individuals,  according  to  Kraepelin,^  dis- 
turbance of  the  mental  faculties  takes  place  by  continuous  use 
of  80-100  Gm.  alcoholic  beverages  daily. 

Kraepelin  has  also  shown  that  often,  after  giving  up  the  use 
of  alcohol  entirely,  even  when  only  small  quantities  have  pre- 
viously been  taken,  a  marked  increase  of  mentality  takes  place; 
while  in  individuals  who  for  years  have  consumed  alcohol  daily 
in  no  small  quantities,  there  can  be  noticed  after  some  time  a 
considerable  reduction  of  their  mental  faculties.  Bonhoeffer^ 
also  found  in  these  individuals  a  condition  of  depression,  such 
as  is  found,  for  instance,  in  epileptics;  also'  stupidity  in  percep- 
tion; soon  they  lose  all  initiative  power  and  a  complete  fatigue 
sets  in.  In  habitual  drinkers,  after  a  number  of  years,  depend- 
ing on  the  quantity  of  alcohol  consumed,  feeble-mindedness 
becomes  manifest;  they  comprehend  everything  badly;  they  are 
unable  to  concentrate  their  attention  on  any  special  object;  their 


3  Kraepelin,  Psychiatrie,  VIII  Auflage,  i,  1909,  S. 

4  Bonhoeffer,  Die  Deutsche  Klinik,  1905,  Bd.  vi. 


Influence  of  Alcohol.    .  121 

memory  becomes  bad.  Thus  a  condition  of  chronic  alcoholism 
develops  with  a  general  reduction  of  all  mental  faculties,  reach- 
ing gradually  the  higher  degrees  of  feeble-mindedness.  In 
brandy  drinkers  the  highest  degree  of  mental  disturbance  de- 
velops, such  as  delirium  tremens  and  the  worst  form  of  weak- 
mindedness, — Korsakow's  mental  disease.  In  beer  drinkers,  who 
had  consumed  large  quantities  regularly,  Kraepelin^  observed 
slowly  developing  mental  stupidity,  a  regular  down-and-out  con- 
dition, as  it  were.  In  young  girls  and  women  whom  I  directed 
to  drink  two  glasses  of  Bavarian  beer  daily  for  their  anemia, 
feebleness  and  emaciation,  I  have  frequently  observed  a  marked 
sleepiness.  In  individuals  who  took  daily  a  quantity  of  alcohol 
corresponding  to  two  liters  of  beer.  Smith  observed  a  permanent 
reduction  of  their  mental  faculties  after  the  second  day.  The 
experiments,  of  Smith  and  Kurz  have  also  shown  that  the  effect 
of  regular  and  continuous  use  of  alcohol  manifests  itself  very 
soon. 

There  are  persons  so  silly  as  not  to  mind  occasional  intoxi- 
cation, but  a  number  of  experiments  have  shown  that  the  after- 
effects of  such  excesses  are  manifested  in  the  mental  sphere  long 
afterward.  So  have  Fiirer  and  Rudi  observed  in  various  in- 
dividuals a  reduction  of  the  mental  faculties  twelve,  sometimes 
twenty-four  hours,  and  even  forty-eight  hours  after  an  intoxica- 
tion. The  after-effects  of  alcohol  may  be  felt  for  quite  a  time 
after  its  use  has  been  discontinued.  Kraepelin  found  in  one 
drinker  a  considerable  reduction  in  conceptive  power  still  present 
two  weeks  after  the  giving  up  of  the  habit.  The  experiments  of 
Kurz  and  Kraepelin*^  have  distinctly  shown  that  for  full  recovery 
of  the  drinker  a  total  abstinence  from  alcohol  is  required. 

The  greatest  injury  to  the  mental  faculties  is  produced,  as 
already  mentioned,  by  the  use  of  brandy.     It  is  significant  that 


^  Kraepelin,    Der    Alkohol    in    Miinchen,    Miinchener    mediz.    Wochen- 
schrift,  1906. 

6  Kurz  und  Kraepelin,  Ueber  die  Beeinflussung  psychischer  Vorgange 
durch  regelmassige  Alkoholmengen.    Psychologische  Arbeiten,  iii,  Heft  3, 


122  Human  Intelligence. 


in  Southern  countries  where  wine  is  drunk,  as  Italy  and  Spain, 
drunkenness  is  very  seldom  observed,  and  when  it  does  occur 
it  can  be  generally  attributed  to  the  use  of  whisky.  In  countries 
where  beer  is  most  used,  it  is  the  enormous  quantities  consumed 
which  are  the  contributing  cause  of  alcoholic  insanity.  At  any 
rate,  it  would  be  entirely  wrong  to  allow  habitual  drinkers  the 
use  of  even  small  amounts  of  wine  or  beer.  It  is  already  due 
to  the  inferior  mental  disposition  of  such  individuals  that  they 
are  totally  unable  to  limit  themselves  to  the  use  of  only  small 
quantities.  Children  of  habitual  drinkers  must  abstain  entirely 
from  the  use  of  alcohol,  and  it  is  best  to  begin  in  childhood 
before  they  have  ever  tasted  it.  There  is  one  faculty  which  is 
particularly  characteristic  of  individuals  of  impaired  or  inferior 
mentality,  and  that  is  lack  of  foresight.  If  anyone  had  an 
acute  attack  of  intoxication  and  experienced  the  feeling,  which 
is  not  unlike  seasickness,  and  also  the  indisposition  which  fol- 
lows it,  it  would  be  reasonable,  from  the  standpoint  of  intelli- 
gence, to  assume  that  such  a  person  would  be  discouraged  from 
having  other  attacks.  The  normally  thinking,  intelligent  man  is 
generally  withheld  from  thoughtless  acts  by  consideration  of  the 
possible  consequences.  This  naturally  cannot  be  expected  from 
those  with  a  low  grade  of  intelligence,  as  the  wild  Maoris, 
and  from  many  of  our  drunkards.  Therefore,  as  with  children 
who  have  no  thought  for  the  future  as  yet,  the  use  of  alcohol  by 
such  individuals  must  be  made  as  difficult  as  possible  or  entirely 
impossible.  As  a  rule„  we  have  to  deal  with  a  hereditary,  mor- 
bid predisposition,  because  a  normal  child  has  rather  an  aver- 
sion for  alcohol. 

It  would  be  very  fitting  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  chil- 
dren in  school  by  frequent  repetitions,  as  is  done  with  the  multi- 
plication table,  the  dangers  of  alcohol.  This  could  be  introduced 
in  the  public  school  readers,  as  is  attempted,  for  instance,  by  the 
Pedagogic  Society  in  Chemistry,  which  presents  the  injurious 
effects  of  alcohol,  and  also  of  tuberculosis,  etc.,  in  a  very  enter- 
taining and  interesting  form  of  small  essays.     In  this  way  what 


Influence  of  Alcohol.  123 

is  learned  in  youthful  years  remains  in  the  memory  forever. 
Descriptive  essays  should  also'  be  published  about  visits  to  the 
various  expositions  demonstrating  the  bad  effects  of  alcohol. 

Notwithstanding  the  high  duty  that  is  placed  upon  alcohol, 
it  is  of  no  avail !  Very  heavy  duty  is  put  upon  the  production  of 
brandy,  and  the  State  has  a  great  annual  income  from  it.  But 
it  is  very  questionable  whether  or  no  the  State  profits  by  it  from 
the  business  standpoint,  when  it  takes  in  a  million  with  the  left 
hand  and  spends  with  the  right  three  millions  to  remedy  the  in- 
juries produced  by  alcohol,  not  counting  the  waste  of  so  much 
valuable  human  material  and  the  poverty  and  misery  produced  by 
it  in  many  families.  Continually  new  inferior  generations  are 
brought  up,  and  misery,  illness  and  crime  are  spread.  Would  it 
not  be  appropriate  to  crush  the  head  of  the  hydra,  while  there  is 
time  and  opportunity?  Similar  to  other  mental  disturbances, 
alcoholism  has  an  underlying  physical  cause  in  the  body.  The 
craving  for  alcohol  originates  in  all  probability  from  a  deficient 
activity  of  certain  glands  of  internal  secretion,  which,  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  thyroid,  dominate  our  metabolism,  and  thus  also  our 
frame  of  mind.  In  degenerative  conditions  of  this  gland  the 
metabolism  is  diminished,  there  exists  a  sensation  of  cold,  even 
in  the  summer,  and  mental  depression  is  its  characteristic  feature. 
It  is  not  more  than  natural  that  under  such  conditions  a  stimula- 
tion by  alcohol  is  sought.  The  probable  base  for  this  view  is 
found  in  the  fact  that  children  of  alcoholics,  who'  show  the 
craving  for  alcohol  in  infancy,  are  born  with  a  degenerated  thy- 
roid. And  the  latter  also  predisposes  them  to  various  mental 
diseases. 

The  rational  way  for  prevention  of  alcoholism  would, 
therefore,  consist  in  the  first  place  in  the  care  of  the  body.  Influ- 
ences of  hunger  and  cold  have  to  be  avoided ;  sufficient  nourish- 
ment and  all  hygienic  modes  of  living  which  further  the  thyroid 
activity  serve  as  preventives.  Children  of  alcoholics  should  be 
given,  during  their  first  years  of  life,  additional  nourishment 


124  Human  Intelligence. 


containing  iron  and  iodine;  mainly  milk,  which,  as  mentioned 
before,  contains  secretions  of  the  thyroid.  Small  quantities  of 
thyroid  tablets  and  small  quantities  of  iodine  would  be  very 
appropriate,  from  the  fact  that  scrofulosis  is  so  extraordinarily 
frequent  in  such  cases.  Of  the  same  benefit  is  cod  liver  oil, 
which  contains  iodine.  Alcohol,  however,  even  a  drop  of  it,  is 
a  poison  for  them. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

Influence  of  Sleepiness  and  Sleeplessness  and  its 
Rational   Treatment. 

During  sleep  all  conscious  mental  activity  ceases.  It  is 
assumed  by  many  that  during  sleep  the  blood-vessels  of  the 
brain-cortex  become  empty,  and  this,  as  mentioned  before, 
excludes  all  conscious  thinking.  Before  sleep  sets  in  a  sleepi- 
ness, and  therefore  a  reduction  of  the  blood-circulation  in  the 
cortex,  takes  place.  This  reduces  the  thinking  ability,  the  atten- 
tion is  lowered,  stimulation  of  the  senses  is  not  perceived,  and 
thus  sleep  is  much  more  accelerated.  When  stimulated  by  a 
brilliant  light  or  loud  sound  attention  is  again  awakened,  the 
blood-circulation  is  revived,  and  thinking  ability  returns  in  its 
full  freshness. 

That  a  diminished  blood  influx  to  the  brain  favors  sleepi- 
ness we  may  see  from  the  fact  that  we  observe  this  condition 
when  any  weakness  or  disturbance  of  blood  formation  or  in  the 
general  circulation  is  present,  and  when  the  arterial  blood-sup- 
ply of  the  brain  is  more  difficult.  It  takes  place,  for  instance, 
after  great  loss  of  blood;  also  during  convalescence  from 
grave  diseases  associated  with  fever,  and  we  also  know  that 
anemic  and  chlorotic  girls  and  women  need  long  sleep.  We  find 
it  conspicuously  as  a  very  typical  symptom  in  degenerative  con- 
ditions of  the  thyroid,  as,  for  instance,  in  myxedema.  We  have 
before  mentioned  that,  according  to  Cyon's  theory,  the  thyroid 
regulates  the  blood  influx  to  the  brain.  At  any  rate,  we  see  in 
myxedema  indications  pointing  to  a  reduced  general  circulation. 
The  skin  is  pale,  the  hands  are  often  blue-red  and  cold,  and  the 
skin  in  general  all  over  the  body  feels  cold.  There  is  such  a 
feeling  of  cold  in  the  course  of  this  disease  that  some  patients, 
as  1  observed  in  a  French  lady,  put  on  furs  during  the  hot  sum- 

(125) 


126  Human  Intelligence. 


mer  days.  The  lowering  of  mental  faculties  in  that  condition 
we  have  already  mentioned. 

The  African  sleeping  sickness  is,  according  to  my  own 
experience  which  I  reported  at  the  Congress  of  Internal  Medi- 
cine at  Wiesbaden  in  1905/  also  closely  related  to  myxedema. 
I  had  an  opportunity  to  observe  a  Belgian  officer  of  the  Congo 
administration  force  suffering  from  that  disease  nine  summers 
ago  in  Carlsbad  and  the  winter  following  in  Brussels.  It  struck 
me  that  the  patient  manifested  all  the  symptoms  of  a  myxe- 
dematous condition.  He  was  at  the  same  time  so  sleepy  that  he 
fell  asleep  even  during  meals.  It  is  reported,  moreover,  of  such 
patients  that  they  fall  asleep  in  all  possible  positions, — for 
instance,  one  officer  of  the  Congo  army  fell  asleep  during  his 
wedding;  another  one  at  the  entry  to  his  physician's  office  while 
he  was  ringing  the  bell.  According  to  the  microscopic  sections 
which  I  demonstrated  at  the  Congress  of  Internal  Medicine  (I 
had  an  opportunity  in  Brussels  to  study  this  question  also  from 
the  standpoint  of  pathological  anatomy)  changes  found  in  the 
central  nervous  system  in  the  African  sleeping  sickness  are  sim- 
ilar to  the  changes  found  in  myxedema.  All  these  changes  are 
undoubtedly  the  results  of  a  preceding  overactivity  of  the  thy- 
roid, the  same  as  found  in  trypanosomiasis — a  disease  caused  by 
the  sting  of  the  tsetse  fly.  Myxedema,  as  we  know,  very  fre- 
quently forms  the  end-stage  of  a  preceding  Basedow's  disease, 
and  in  trypanosomiasis  are  actually  found  all  typical  symptoms  of 
Basedow's  disease,  as  it  is  found  in  all  grave  infectious  diseases 
in  general. 

That  the  African  sleeping  disease  is  only  a  sequel,  and  may 
justly  be  attributed  to  changes  of  the  thyroid  gland  as  I  sug- 
gested, may  be  deduced  with  certainty  from  the  fact  that  an 
entirely  similar  condition  is  also  not  infrequently  observed  in 
our  regions,  namely,  in  cases  where  changes  of  the  thyroid  are 
present.     We  see  it  very  distinctly  in  obesity.     There  is  a  form 


1  Lorand,     Verhandlungen     des     Deutschen     Kongresses     fiir     innere 
Medizin,  1905. 


Influence  of  Sleepiness  and  Sleeplessness.  127 

of  obesity  which,  in  my  former  publications,  I  called  endoge- 
nous obesity,^  because  it  originates,  irrespective  of  overnourish- 
ment,  from  causes  which  are  to  be  sought  within  the  body  itself, 
namely,  from  changes  taking  place  in  various  ductless  glands. 
In  my  book,  "Old  Age,"  I  have  reported  several  such  cases,  and 
will  mention  here  only  one  of  them.  It  was  a  Mr.  L.,  from 
Paris,  whose  weight  was  124  kilo,  and  who  fell  asleep  at  all 
possible  opportunities.  Patients  who  have  been  sitting  in  my 
waiting  room  often  had  to  support  him  to  prevent  his  falling 
from  the  chair.  He  would  fall  asleep  while  conversing  with  me. 
Once  he  was  arrested  by  a  watchman  in  Carlsbad  because  he  fell 
asleep  leaning  against  a  railing  at  the  Tepl  River,  and  was  held 
to  be  drunk ;  it  is  a  condition  similar  to  the  one  observed  in  the 
African  sleeping  disease.  After  I  had  treated  this  patient  with 
thyroid  tablets  he  lost  16  kilo  in  weight  and  simultaneously  his 
condition  of  sleepiness  was  markedly  improved.  I  should  like 
to  mention  here  that  the  patient  presented  signs  of  general  cir- 
culatory disturbances.  The  hands  were  blue-red,  somewhat 
swollen;  the  face  showed  a  blue-red  tint.  The  presence  of  a 
venous  stasis  has  been  revealed  by  the  fact  that  when  the  patient 
developed  a  bronchial  catarrh  the  sputum  became  bloody,  with- 
out characteristic  changes  of  pneumonia  being  present.  In  re- 
gard to  the  mental  faculties,  it  may  be  stated  that  his  thinking 
was  retarded.  It  was  always  some  time  before  I  could  get  an 
answer  to  a  question.  His  speech  was  very  slow,  memory  some- 
what weak.  The  logic  of  thinking  was  not  affected,  judgment 
not  markedly  weakened,  but  he  exhibited  somewhat  of  a  peas- 
ant's mind.  Taken  as  a  whole  his  mental  faculties  were  rather 
below  the  average  of  men  of  his  standing.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  millionaire  banker;  he  had  received  a  good  education,  and 
lived  as  a  rich,  retired  man,  without  any  occupation.  Consider- 
ing his  mental  faculties  as  a  whole,  he  could  be  characterized  as 
a  good-natured  fellow.     His  mental  horizon  was,  on  the  whole, 


2  Lorand,  Medizinische  Klinik,  1905. 


128  Human  Intelligence. 


very  limited  A  similar  case  of  a  boy  affected  with  such  a  form 
of  obesity  with  sleepiness,  who  fell  asleep  during  instruction,  is 
mentioned  in  another  part  of  this  book. 

The  best  treatment  for  such  a  condition  is,  according  to  my 
observation,  the  administration  of  thyroid,  which  at  the  same 
time  acts  favorably  upon  the  obesity.  It  is  also  advisable  to 
recommend  a  sunny  climate  during  the  winter.  That  the  latter 
gives  good  results  we  demonstrate  by  the  case  of  the  high-school 
boy  affected  with  sleepiness,  reported  in  Chapter  XXVI.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  sun  is  also  proved  by  the  fact  that  in  beautiful  sum- 
mer the  desire  for  sleeping  is  lessened ;  as  soon  as  the  fall  comes 
sleep  becomes  longer,  and  in  dark  winter  it  is  the  longest.  Fre- 
quent walks,  carbonic  acid  baths,  various  sports  are  to  be  recom- 
mended, as  they  favor  the  blood-circulation. 

Based  upon  my  observation  of  the  sleeping  sickness  I 
advanced  the  theory  eight  years  ago^  that  sleep  is  regulated  by 
the  thyroid  gland.  I  pointed  out  the  improvement  obtained  in 
the  case  of  the  African  sleeping  sickness  which  I  have  observed 
by  the  administration  of  thyroid  tablets;  and  I  also  alluded  fur- 
ther to  the  fact  that  whenever  the  thyroid  is  degenerated,  sleepi- 
ness appears  as  a  very  typical  symptom,  as  is  the  case  in  myxe- 
dema; whenever  the  thyroid  is  overactive,  however,  as,  for 
instance,  in  Basedow's  disease,  there,  contrary  to  myxedema, 
sleeplessness  may  be  observed.  Upon  myself,  as  well  as  upon 
a  number  of  patients,  I  confirmed  the  above  statement  by 
observing  that  when  thyroid  tablets  have  been  taken  to  excess 
sleeplessness  was  produced. 

Apparently  without  knowledge  of  my  observations  upon  the 
influence  of  the  thyroid,  Salmon  afterward  advanced  the  view 
that  the  hypophysis  regulates  the  sleep.  He  pointed  out  the  pres- 
ence of  sleeplessness  in  the  presence  of  tumors  of  the  hypophysis. 
In  regard  to  this  I  want  to  suggest  that  in  these  cases  changes 


3  Lorand,    Das   Wesen    der   Schlafkrankheit,    Deutscher    Kongress    fiir 
innere  Medizin,  Wiesbaden,  1905. 


Influence  of  Sleepiness  and  Sleeplessness.  129 

in  the  thyroid  are  always  present,  and  they  lead  secondarily  to 
the  changes  in  the  hypophysis. 

We  find,  therefore,  that  the  difference  between  the  condi- 
tions of  sleepiness  and  sleeplessness  is,  that  in  the  former  an 
underactivity  of  the  thyroid  manifests  itself,  while  in  the  latter 
an  overactivity  is  present ;  in  the  former  the  blood-supply  to  the 
brain-cortex  is  a  more  difficult  one,  while  in  the  latter  there  is, 
in  all  probability,  an  overfullness  of  the  blood-vessels  present. 
In  this  connection  I  would  like  to  point  out  that  all  the  condi- 
tions and  all  remedies,  which  produce  a  rich  blood-supply  to  the 
cortex,  also  produce  sleeplessness.  So,  for  instance,  coffee  and 
tea  raise  the  blood-pressure  and  widen  the  blood-vessels  of  the 
brain.  An  opposite  action  is  produced  by  the  sleep-producing 
remedies,  as  morphia,  for  example.  Here  the  blood-pressure  is 
lowered  and  the  blood-vessels  of  the  cortex  are  contracted.  In 
conditions  of  maniacal  exaltations,  insomnia  also  takes  place, 
possibly  as  a  result  of  a  congestion  to  the  brain-cortex.  Usually 
in  such  exalted  conditions,  sleep-producing  remedies  are  there- 
fore used. ' 

We  know  that  during  the  process  of  thinking  much  blood 
is  supplied  to  the  cortex.  If  anyone  works  mentally  in  the  even- 
ing before  going  to  bed  and  then  thinks  about  it  while  in  bed, 
there  can  be  no  quiet  sleep.  Those  suffering  from  insomnia 
should,  therefore,  do  no  mental  work  at  night.  This  would  be 
the  simplest  hygienic  advice.  It  is  a  great  mistake  when  anyone 
suffering  from  insomnia  at  once  takes  refuge  in  hypnotic 
remedies  instead  of  trying  the  simple  hygienic  countermeasures 
already  dictated  to  us  by  healthy  common  sense.  What  is  the 
sense  of  taking  at  once  veronal,  and  at  the  same  time  permitting 
the  electric  light  from  the  street  to  shine  into  the  bedroom,  or 
sleeping  in  a  room  facing  the  street  where  the  noise  from  the  cars 
and  other  rattling  transportation  facilities  are  constantly  heard? 
The  proper  thing  to  do  is  to  exclude  all  irritations  of 
the  organs  of  sense,  and,  with  them,  of  the  brain-cortex, 
by  closing  all  the  windows  with  double  frames,  and  selecting 


130  Human  Intelligence. 


as  a  bedroom  one  facing  a  garden.  The  windows  must  be  pro- 
vided with  blinds  or  thick  blue  or  red  curtains  to  avoid  as  much 
as  possible  all  perceptions  of  light  and  sound.  Such  excitements 
of  the  brain  may,  however,  also  be  caused  by  other  internal  dis- 
orders, such  as  a  full  stomach  when  in  the  evening  food  which 
is  difficult  to  digest  and  causes  annoying  flatulence  is  eaten,  and 
also  fullness  of  the  bladder  when  drinks  are  used  containing  car- 
bonic acid  or  alcohol.  Alcohol  can  also  cause  an  overfilling  of 
the  blood-vessels  of  the  brain,  and  in  this  way  disturb  the  sleep. 
About  all  these  various  causes  of  insomnia  and  their  remedies  I 
have  dwelt  in  detail  in  my  book  on  "Old  Age,"  and  need  not, 
therefore,  repeat  it  here. 

Whereas  sleepiness  injures  the  thinking  ability  very  mate- 
rially we  may  observe  not  rarely,  during  insomnia  due  to  the 
rich  blood-supply  to  the  blood-vessels  of  the  brain,  an  elevation 
of  thinking  power,  which  is  still  more  increased  by  the  hori- 
zontal position  in  bed.  And  thus  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at, 
that  world-moving  discoveries,  some  of  the  greatest  mental 
creations,  have  originated  during  a  sleepless  night.  As  an  exam- 
ple I  may  mention  here  the  discovery  of  the  telegraph.  Morse, 
to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  that  discovery,  was  on  the  high 
seas  returning  home  from  England.  One  night  a  storm  arose 
and  Morse  could  not  sleep.  He  was  constantly  thinking  of  the 
power  of  electricity,  and  suddenly  an  idea  came  to  him  to  utilize 
it  for  distance  writing,  and  he  was  reflecting  upon  the  best 
method  to  put  his  thoughts  into  practice.  He  at  once  jumped 
out  of  bed  and,  awakening  his  cabinmate  with  the  exclamation, 
"God  has  sent  me  an  idea  which  will  astound  the  world,"  drew 
the  apparatus  as  it  had  presented  itself  to  him  in  his  mind. 
Some  time  after  the  first  telegraph  line  was  opened  between 
Washington  and  Baltimore. 

We  find  insomnia  also  very  frequently  in  men  of  Very  high 
standing  in  regard  to  mentality,  and  in  brain-workers  generally. 
If  it  continues  for  a  long  time  it  may  have  an  unfavorable  influ- 
ence upon  the  thinking  ability,  because  a  condition  of  fatigue 


Influence  of  Sleepiness  and  Sleeplessness.  131 

may  ensue  and  as  a  consequence  the  various  sense-perceptions 
which  constitute  the  base  of  our  thinking  are  not  understood 
and  appHed  correctly.  It  has  also  to  be  taken  into  consideration 
that  sleeplessness  may  form  the  cause  for  origin  of  neurasthenia 
and  grave  nervous  diseases,  which,  in  their  turn,  may  affect  the 
thinking  faculty,  and  even  favor  the  development  of  mental  dis- 
eases. We  must  keep  in  mind  that  sleep  is  a  process  of  detoxi- 
cation,  whereby  a  number  of  injurious  substances  are  elimi- 
nated. We  are  then  able  to  understand  that  by  the  retention  of 
toxic  substances  mental  diseases  may  be  caused.  It  is,  there- 
fore, perfectly  proper  to  administer  codeine,  or  J^  to  i  gramme 
of  veronal,  or  the  milder-acting  bromural,  in  case  sleep  was  in- 
sufficent,  two  or  three  nights  in  succession. 

According  to  my  observations,  which  I  reported  in  my  book 
on  "Old  Age,"  the  serum  of  decapitated  goats,  the  antithyroidin 
of  Moebius,  which  was  used  on  his  recommendation  in  Base- 
dow's disease,  acts  also  very  favorably  in  insomnia.  By  prompt 
treatment  of  insomnia,  an  already  approaching  mental  disturb- 
ance may  frequently  be  successfully  checked. 

A  very  effective  remedy  against  insomnia  is  often  early  ris- 
ing, at  5  o'clock,  or,  still  better,  at  4  o'clock  in  summer  and  5 
or  6  o'clock  in  winter.  One  feels  then  so  sleepy  at  about  10.30 
in  the  evening  as  to  sink  into  rest  at  once.  Thus  is  produced 
the  best  remedy  against  insomnia,  namely,  sleepiness.  From  4 
or  5  until  8  o'clock  in  the  morning,  according  to  my  own  experi- 
ence of  many  years,  a  great  amount  of  work  may  be  accom- 
plished with  clearness  of  mind,  and  a  sleep  of  six  or  seven 
hours  is  sufficient  for  a  mental  worker.  Of  course,  the  sleep 
must  then  be  a  very  deep  one.  The  necessary  duration  of  sleep 
depends,  in  my  mind,  more  upon/  its  depth  than  upon  its  length. 
A  sleep  too  long  is  surely  more  detrimental  to  mental  activity 
than  one  that  is  too  short.  The)  following  old  Flemish  proverb, 
about  the  duration  of  sleep,  is  therefore  very  true : — 

"Seven  hours'  sleep  is  Christian, 
Eight  hours'  sleep  is  human, 
Nine  hours'  sleep  is  beastly." 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

The  Influence  of  Migraine  and  Headaches  in  Gen- 
eral  UPON   THE   Faculty   of  Thinking   and 
Their  Rational  Treatment. 

Whoever  has  had  the  opportunity  to  observe  a  person 
suffering  from  most  severe  headache,  as  it  is  generally  mani- 
fested during  an  attack  of  genuine  migraine,  would  easily  under- 
stand that  in  such  a  condition  any  kind  of  thinking  is  absolutely 
impossible.  How  could  it  be  possible  for  a  man  to  think  at  all, 
and  still  more  do  any  kind  of  mental  work,  when  the  slightest 
sense  perception,  even  a  glimpse  of  light  or  the  lowest  sound 
irritates  him  and  aggravates  his  condition?  Such  a  man  shuns 
the  light;  he  instinctively  looks  for  the  darkest  room,  and  by 
darkening  the  bedroom  during  the  day  and  closing  the  windows 
and  shutters  he  tries  to  exclude  all  rays  of  light  and  all  sounds. 
He  wants  to  quiet  down  his  brain  by  excluding  all  sense  percep- 
tions. It  seems  to  be  a  fact  that  in  this  condition  an  irritability 
of  the  brain-centers  toward  sense-perception  exists  which,  it  is 
assumed  by  many,  is  caused  by  a  disturbance  of  the  blood-cir- 
culation in  the  cortex  of  one  hemisphere.  This  is  probably  also 
indicated  by  the  frequently  appearing  scintillating  scotomas. 
In  this  case  one  sees  a  flashing,  zigzag  line  on  one  side  of  the 
field  of  vision.  Before  this  appears,  however,  there  are  for  5 
or  10  minutes  previous  to  that  some  forerunners.  First,  the 
patient  notices  that  a  certain  part  of  the  field  of  vision  becomes 
indistinct,  as  if  covered  by  a  cloud.  He  can  recognize  only 
parts  of  an  object,  but  not  the  whole  object  distinctly.  Then,  a 
few  minutes  later  a  crown  of  rays  which,  at  the  outer  border  of 
the  field  of  vision,  moves  in  different  directions,  but  usually  from 
above  downward,  like  a  glimmering  whip,  short  in  the  begin- 
ning and  becoming  continually  longer.  In  about  half  an  hour 
everything  is  over.  According  to  my  observation  such  a  scotoma 
(132) 


Influence  of  Migraine,  etc.  133 

most  easily  develops  when  the  patient  strenuously  performs 
some  mental  work,  and  at  the  same  time  keeps  his  eyes  fixed  for 
a  long  time  on  certain  points  which  he  reads,  whereby  the  eyes 
are  kept  converging.  This  causes  a  congestion  of  the  eyes.  As 
a  circulatory  disturbance  in  the  cortex  must  also  be  considered 
the  total  blindness  of  the  entire  or  only  half  of  the  field  of 
vision  (hemianopia).  It  is  to  be  attributed  to  a  disturbance  of 
circulation  in  the  hind  lobe  of  the  opposite  half  of  the  brain. 
The  participation  of  the  brain  is,  moreover,  seen  from  the  occur- 
ring disturbance  of  thinking  ability;  it  may  even  become  a  con- 
fusion, the  same  as  is  seen  in  mental  diseases. 

It  is  probably  in  connection  with  a  beginning  congestion  to 
the  brain-cortex  that  nearly  half  of  the  patients  suffering  from 
migraine,  shortly  before  the  attack,  feel,  so  to  say,  "devilish"; 
well,  they  are  mentally  active  in  a  great  degree.  This  mental 
incitement  should,  according  to  what  has  been  suggested  in 
Chapter  I  of  this  book,  be  attributed  to  a  profuse  filling  of  the 
brain-cortex  with  blood  which  introduces  the  attack. 

That  a  profuse  blood-supply  to  the  brain-cortex  produces  a 
better  disposition  and  incitement  for  mental  activity  we  have 
before  mentioned;  a"  stagnation  of  it,  however,  may  favor  the 
formation  of  a  congestion.  Such  a  congestion  is  liable  to  cause 
headache.  In  the  article  which  was  published  in  Mi'inch.  mediz. 
Wochenschrift  on  October  3,  191 2,  I  have  attributed  to  this 
cause,  not  only  the  origin  of  migraine,  but  of  headaches  in 
general.  Anyone  who  is  engaged  intensely  in  mental  work  may 
have  some  time  a  congestion  of  the  brain  associated  with  severe 
headache.  This  may  cause  severe  nasal  bleeding, — something 
which  is  not  very  rare  in  such  cases, — and  the  headache  will 
then,  as  a  rule,  disappear.  The  latter  may  be  attributed  to  the 
fact  that  the  blood-circulatory  condition  has  been  relieved  by 
the  bleeding  and  the  stagnation  of  the  blood  in  the  brain-vessels 
has  diminished.  In  old  subjects  suffering  from  arteriosclerosis, 
who  so  often  complain  of  dizziness  and  unbearable  headaches, 
we  can  observe  a  marked  improvement  or  disappearance  of  the 


134  Human  Intelligence. 


headache  after  a  spontaneous  nose-bleeding,  and  in  connectiofl 
with  it  the  previously  existing  reduction  of  the  mental  faculties 
is  raised,  and  with  it  the  thinking  ability  in  general. 

In  view  of  this  fact  it  would  be  advisable  in  case  of  head- 
aches, particularly  when  they  are  most  violent  and  unbearable, 
to  produce  such  a  bleeding,  provided  there  are  no  other  contra- 
indications to  it.  When  we  want  to  relieve  the  circulation  we 
do  not  need,  however,  to  resort  to  such  bloody  measures  as 
venesection.  The  venesection,  which  was  one  of  the  main 
therapeutic  preventive  measures  during  former  centuries,  is  at 
this  time  entirely  abandoned,  although  it  is  questionable  whether 
justly.  Instead  of  that  we  use  at  present  mustard  plasters;  we 
order  strong  purgatives,  and  produce  profuse  sweating;  we  also 
influence  urination,  which,  although  indirectly,  also  relieves  the 
blood-circulation.  A  similar  indirect  method  through  the  nose 
we  can  also  use,  according  to  my  experience,  by  administering 
sneezing  powders,  which  results  in  a  profuse  nasal  discharge. 
The  amount  of  fluid  secretion  which  is  discharged  is,  as  already 
mentioned,  mainly  withdrawn  from  the  blood  and  lymph,  and 
as  a  result  there  can  be  noticed,  as  a  rule,  a  decided  improve- 
ment; very  frequently  even  an  entire  disappearance  of  the 
headache. 

In  a  number  of  instances,  in  myself  and  also  in  patients 
suffering  from  headache  during  colds  in  the  head,  with  dryness 
in  the  nose  and  scab  formation,  or  in  obstruction  of  the  nasal 
chambers,  I  have  used  a  sneeze-producing  snuff  consisting  of 
sneezing  root,  marjoram,  and  Florentine  root.  After  the  sneez- 
ing the  disagreeable  dry  feeling  disappeared,  and  with  it  the  head- 
ache was  also  gone.  A  similar  effect  I  was  able  to  produce  by 
the  smelling  of  ammonia  or  mustard  spirit,  which  also  produces 
a  discharge  from  the  nose.  Taking  into  consideration  the  con- 
ditions existing  in  migraine,  I  explained  the  effect  obtained  by 
this  treatment  as  due  to  the  relief  of  the  blood-circulation  in  the 
brain,  and  have  obtained,  likewise,  favorable  results  in  cases  of 
migraine  in  quite  a  number  of  patients.    In  most  severe  attacks 


Influence  of  Migraine,  etc.  135 

it  acted  at  once  as  soon  as  sneezing  took  place,  and  secretion  was 
discharged  in  large  quantities.  So  I  treated,  for  instance,  in 
this  way  a  lady  superintendent  of  a  large  bakery  in  Carlsbad 
who  had  been  suffering  for  a  number  of  years  from  unbearable 
migraine  pains.  Every  time  that  she  had  a  migraine  attack  she 
took  this  sneezing  powder,  and  a  few  minutes  after  the  sneez- 
ing started  the  headaches  disappeared.  I  was  very  much 
annoyed  once  by  severe  pains  in  the  right  side  of  the  head.  The 
smelling  of  ammonia  relieved  the  headache,  but  it  soon  returned. 
I  then  took  a  sneezing  or  snuff  powder  which  contained  a  small 
quantity  of  veratrine.  A  very  profuse  discharge  from  the  nose 
set  in;  enough  to  wet  two  handkerchiefs,  and  the  headache  dis- 
appeared. Veratrine  is,  however,  even  in  small  quantities,  not  a 
harmless  remedy,  and,  therefore,  the  more  harmless  sneezing 
root  in  3  or  4  per  cent,  strength  is  to  be  recommended  as  an 
addition  to  a  snuff  powder.  If  that  sneezing  powder  is  not  used 
too  often,  it  is,  according  to  my  experience,  harmless  in  a  large 
number  .of  cases. 

The  favorable  results  which  I  have  obtained  with  sneezing 
powder  in  treating  headaches  due  to  migraine  and  nasal  obstruc- 
tions have  induced  me  to  try  this  method  also  in  other  kinds  of 
headaches.  And  there,  also,  I  have  obtained  equally  good 
results,  as  in  headaches  due  to  neurasthenia,  in  two  cases  of 
indisposition  after  intoxication  with  champagne;  even  in  head- 
aches during  angina  a  marked  improvement  took  place;  also  in 
two  cases  of  trigeminal  neuralgia  due  to  disease  of  the  teeth. 
Very  interesting  was  the  observation  which  I  made  once  during 
my  journey  from  Calais  to  Dover ;  on  a  very  stormy  day  I  had 
used  ammonia  as  an  inhalant  and  produced  sneezing  with  a 
snuff  powder.  While  I  felt  somewhat  seasick,  I  felt  no  head- 
ache at  all.  When  the  steamer  entered  the  harbor  I  had  quite 
a  severe  vomiting  spell  whenever  I  wanted  to  move,  but  during 
the  whole  journey  I  had  no  headache.  Other  times  I  was 
always  seasick  on  the  water,  and  always  had  headaches  asso- 
ciated with  it. 


136  Human  Intelligence. 


All  these  cures  and  remarkable  improvement  of  headaches 
of  various  kinds  have  always  taken  place  after  sneezing  and  pro- 
fuse discharge  has  set  in,  which  is  an  indication  that  the  nasal 
discharge  has  acted  as  a  relief  for  the  blood-circulation  in  the 
brain.  It  is  my  opinion  that  all  headaches  have  the  same  origin 
or  starting-point,  and  have  the  same  cause,  which  is  to  be  looked 
for  in  the  circulatory  disturbances  of  the  brain,  either  in  the 
cortex  or,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  blood  from  the  cortex 
passes  through  the  veins  of  the  brain  into  the  dura  mater,  in  the 
blood-vessels  of  the  latter.  These  blood-vessels,  as  I  have 
already  mentioned,  enter  into  relation  by  means  of  the  sinus, 
the  veins  of  Santorini,  diploic  veins,  and  the  veins  of  the  nose. 
The  rational  treatment  of  headaches  is,  therefore,  in  my  opin- 
ion, based  upon  utilizing  these  anatomic  relations  for  therapeutic 
purposes.  From  this  point  of  view  it  is  also  easy  to  understand 
how  the  navy  physician,  Michael  Braun,  the  founder  of  vibra- 
tion massage  of  the  nose  and  pharynx,  was  able  to  remove  the 
severest  headaches  in  malaria  as  well  as  neuralgia  by  means  of 
nasal  massage.  It  also  explains  the  reason  why  headaches  in 
brain-tumors  may  be  treated  with  such  favorable  results  with 
large  doses  of  iodine.  These  methods  of  treatment  just  depend 
on  the  utilization  of  the  nose  as  the  organ  of  compensation,  for 
the  circulation  is  in  the  brain. 

I  consider  this  external  method  of  treatment  of  headaches 
as  very  rational.  It  is  decidedly  more  harmless  than  the  sali- 
cylates, phenacetin,  antipyrin,  pyramidin,  etc.,  which  are  not 
harmless  for  the  stomach,  heart  and  kidneys.  Taken  often  these 
remedies  are  surely  not  without  danger  for  the  named  organs, 
and  in  some  cases  even  when  they  are  taken  more  rarely.  But 
the  sneezing  powders  may  also  sometimes  act  unfavorably,  for 
instance,  in  arteriosclerosis,  by  increasing  the  pressure,  although 
after  profuse  nasal  discharge  sets  in  the  pressure  becomes  at 
once  reduced.  In  habitual  headaches  the  most  rational  treat- 
ment is  massage  treatment  of  the  nose  by  an  efficient  specialist. 
In  severe  cases  of  migraine  it  may  be  noticed  sometimes. 


Influence  of  Migraine,  etc.  137 

not  only  during  an  attack,  but  also  in  the  intervals,  a  reduction 
of  mental  faculties,  particularly  in  migraine  of  the  eyes.  The 
fear  of  the  next  attack  alone  acts  in  a  depressing  manner  and 
distracts  the  attention  from  mental  work.  It  happens,  however, 
that  some  highly  gifted  indivduals  may  produce  very  important 
work,  notwithstanding  terrible  eye  migraines.  This  we  see,  for 
instance,  in  Wollaston,  and  also  in  Nietzsche.  In  both  it  was 
an  omen  of  the  approaching  mental  disease,  the  progressive 
paralysis  in  which  eye  migraine,  as  sometimes  occurs  in  tabes, 
may  be  the  very  first  symptom  of  the  disease.  In  many  individ- 
uals suffering  from  severe  migraine,  the  memory  becomes  first 
of  all  affected.  This  is  the  result  of  absent-mindedness,  the 
weak  perceptibility.  According  to  Flatau^  most  often  names  are 
forgotten,  even  those  of  distinguished  men  or  generally  known 
authors,  titles  of  books;  also,  foreign  languages.  He  treated 
an  elderly  lady  who  was  so  forgetful  that  she  could  not  attend 
to  her  household  duties;  she  did  not  know  where  she  shortly 
before  had  put  her  keys,  or  what  orders  she  had  given  a  few 
minutes  before  to  the  cook.  This  lady  had  no  physical  disorder 
whatever.  Another  of  his  patients,  a  lady  28  years  old,  forgot 
the  number  of  the  house  where  she  lived. 

That  in  individuals  suffering  from  frequent  severe  migraine 
attacks,  particularly  eye  migraine,  the  general  disposition  be- 
comes affected  is  quite  obvious;  also  that  the  depressive  condi- 
tions have  a  very  unfavorable  influence  upon  mental  activity. 
Sometimes  it  may  advance  so  far  as  to  give  rise  to  mental  dis- 
orders. It  has  been  mentioned  before  that  the  most  disagree- 
able cases  of  migraine,  the  eye  migraine  associated  with  scintil- 
lating scotoma,  are  sometimes  the  forerunners  of  approaching 
mental  disorders,  of  the  paralysis  of  the  insane.  These  may 
appear  many  years  before  the  outbreak  of  the  disease.  If  a 
person,  who  never  suffered  from  migraine  before,  becomes 
affected  with  eye  migraine  at  an  advanced  age,  it  is  often  an 


1  Flatau,  Die  Migrane,  Berlin,  1912. 


138  Human  Intelligence. 


unfavorable  sign.  It  may  have  some  relation  to  arteriosclerosis 
or  it  may  have  something  to  do  with  vascular  changes  in  the 
brain;  more  often,  however,  it  may  be  considered  as  a  forerun- 
ner of  developing  progressive  paralysis  or  tabes,  in  case  some- 
time, or  even  years  previous,  a  syphilitic  infection  has  taken 
place.  Some  authorities  consider  as  the  cause  of  migraine  a 
spasmodic  contraction  of  brain-vessels,  particularly  of  the  art. 
fossae  sylvii  or  art.  cerebri  post. 

This  contraction  causes  a  temporary  disturbance  of  circula- 
tion in  the  brain-cortex.  Sieble^  is  of  the  opinion  that  some 
chemical  toxic  injury  causes  a  reaction  in  the  cells  of  the  cortex 
which  produces  the  glittering  and  also  the  zigzag  rays;  after 
the  reaction  is  over,  exhaustion  and  paralysis  set  in,  which  is 
followed  by  the  appearance  of  the  dark  spots,  the  scotoma;  then 
follows  recuperation  of  the  cells,  and  the  sight  is  restored  to  its 
former  strength. 

The  treatment  of  migraine  is,  therefore,  to  be  directed 
against  these  toxic  injuries.  These  may  be  of  different  kinds. 
Uric  acid  is  considered  by  many  as  the  most  important  of  such 
injurious  substances.  Wherever  there  exists  a  uric  acid  diathe- 
sis— and  such  is  found  in  most  of  the  cases — a  corresponding 
diet  must  be  observed.  All  foodstuffs  which  form  much  uric 
acid  should  be  strongly  avoided.  I  have  given  a  list  of  uric 
acid- forming  foodstuffs  in  my  book  on  "Rational  Diet"  accord- 
ing to  the  investigation  of  Bessau  and  Schmidt.  Here  I  want 
to  mention  only  that  calves'  sweetbread,  liver  and  kidney  form 
most  of  the  uric  acid ;  meat  in  general,  also  legumes ;  some  varie- 
ties of  small  fish,  such  as  herring,  sardines;  also  dark  beer,  tea, 
coffee,  etc.  The  best  nourishment  would  be  food  with  only 
little  meat  and  fish,  much  milk,  cheese,  vegetables,  fruit.  This 
diet  acts  very  favorably  upon  one  factor  which  plays  here  a 
great  role  and  this  is  the  changes  in  the  kidneys  which  prevent 
the  secretion  of  uric  acid  and  thus  may  often  participate  in  the 


2  Sieble,  mentioned  by  Flatau. 


Influence  of  Migraine,  etc.  139 

development  of  migraine.  Great  stress  must  be  laid  upon  the 
regularity  of  the  bowel  movement;  strong  purging  may  help 
very  much  in  removing  toxic  substances  f  rortL  the  digestive  tract, 
which  may  participate  in  the  causing  of  spasmodic  contractions 
of  the  brain-vessels.  I  would  also  recommend  frequent  sweat- 
baths,  which  may  help  to  remove  toxic  substances.  Many 
migraine  patients  are  recommended  treatment  with  mineral 
waters  which  contain  purgatives  and  at  the  same  time  act  favor- 
ably upon  the  digestion.  Persons  suffering  from  eye  migraine 
should  be  advised  to  abstain  from  strenuous  mental  work. 
Actually  the  appearance  of  scintillating  scotoma  occurs  most  fre- 
quently after  much  reading,  much  mental  work ;  also  after  expo- 
sure to  dazzling  light.  Quinine,  taken  often  in  small  doses  is 
said  to  act  very  favorably  in  such  cases.  I  have  succeeded  in 
stopping  the  beginning  of  scintillating  scotoma  by  inhalation  of 
ammonia. 

During  an  attack  of  migraine  itself,  good  results  have  been 
obtained  with  nitroglycerin  and  adrenalin.  As  mentioned  before, 
I  have  been  able  to  see  a  rapid  disappearance  oi,  migraine  head- 
ache in  many  cases  by  producing  a  profuse  nasal  discharge  with 
sneezing  remedies.  In  nasal  obstructions  and  also  in  various 
headaches  it  is  very  appropriate  to  use  daily  vibratory  massage 
on  the  nose.  According  to  Hertoghe,  migraine  is  often  a  sign  of 
thyroid  weakness,  and  he  often  obtained  improvement  by  thyroid 
treatment.  I  have  also  observed  attacks  becoming  more  rare 
after  such  treatment. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

Consequences  of   Mental  Overstrain   and   Fatigue, 
Their   Prevention   and  Treatment. 

It  has  been  established  by  a  number  of  investigators  that 
in  animals  which  have  become  fatigued  through  exertion,  the 
nerve-cells  present  more  or  less  grave  morbid  changes.  Very 
interesting  in  this  respect  are  the  observations  made  by  Hodge 
and  others,  that  in  sparrows  and  other  animals  the  nerve-cells, 
when  examined  under  the  microscope,  present  degenerative 
changes  when  examined  in  the  evening,  whereas  if  the  exami- 
nation is  made  in  the  morning,  after  the  animals  have  rested, 
they  present  an  entirely  normal  appearance.  We  can  hardly 
have  any  doubt  about  it,  that  in  the  human  being  similar  changes 
are  taking  place  after  work,  whereas  after  rest  the  nerve-cells 
present  a  better  and  more  suitable  condition  for  work.  From 
this  it  follows  that  man  is  most  able  to  work  in  the  morning. 
We  do  our  best  thinking  more  clearly  after  awakening  in  the 
morning,  and  many  are  better  able  while  still  lying  in  bed  to 
make  their  plans  of  what  they  intend  to  do  during  the  day. 
Undoubtedly  ("Morgenstunde  hat  gold  im  Munde")  the  morn- 
ing hours  are  the  most  appropriate  for  mental  work  and  the  best 
accomplishments  by  pupils  in  school  take  place  during  these 
hours.  In  regard  to  retaining  what  has  been  learned,  however, 
many  think  what  they  have  learned  late  in  the  evening  or  at 
night  is  best  retained  in  memory.  Studying  in  the  evening  has, 
however,  this  disadvantage,  that  sleep,  its  duration  and  its  depth, 
is  very  much  harmed.  Now,  we  have  already  mentioned  that 
sleep  has  for  its  purpose  the  removal  from  the  body  of  poison- 
ous substances  which  have  formed  as  the  result  of  daily  muscle 
activity  as  well  as  the  activity  of  various  other  organs.  If,  then, 
sleep  is  prevented  or  shortened,  these  poisons,  as,  for  example, 
poisons  formed  during  fatigue,  will  remain  within  the  body,  and 
(140), 


Consequences  of  Overstrain  and  Fatigue.  141 

nothing  can  produce  so  easily  mental  overexertion  and  fatigue 
as  the  being  awake  half  the  night  after  long  and  arduous 
studying. 

The  bad  results  of  such  being  awake  and  working  at  nights 
are  shown  by  the  observations  of  Aschaffenburg.^  He  found  in 
such  individuals  a  general  reduction  of  the  mental  faculties ;  per- 
ception was  difficult,  thinking  retarded.  Kraepelin  found,  after 
working  through  a  whole  night,  a  reduction  of  working  ability 
which  lasted  almost  four  days.  He  attributes  this  to  the  irrita- 
tion produced  by  insufficiently  removed  catabolic  substances. 

Such  overexertion,  combined  with  sleeplessness,  may  have 
very  bad  results  in  nervous  persons.  The  latter  are  already 
easily  fatigued,  and  if  there  is  added  to  it  much  work  and  little 
sleep,  then  the  toxic  substances  are  retained  in  the  body,  and 
we  see  then  often  in  such  cases,  with  a  hereditary  predisposition, 
that  these  causes  give  rise  to  mental  diseases.  I  have  already 
mentioned  the  case  of  an  engineer,  30  years  of  age,  who  had 
charge  of  a  coal-mine,  and  who  was  overtaxed  with  work,  and, 
besides,  had  to  rise  at  3  o'clock  every  morning  to  inspect  the 
shafts.  After  having  been  disturbed  in  his  sleep  for  a  number 
of  nights  he  became  insane.  I  should  like  to  add  here  the  case 
of  one  of  my  patients,  a  young  married,  aristocratic  lady  from 
the  eastern  provinces  of  Russia.  She  was  a  very  intelligent  lady, 
had  been  very  good  in  mathematics  in  school,  and  was  helping 
her  husband,  who  was  a  rich  landowner,  in  the  management  of 
his  estates,  and  was  attending  to  all  necessary  calculations. 
Once,  after  she  had  been  working  on  these  calculations  half  of 
the  night,  she  became  so  exhausted  that  she  was  not  able  to  do 
any  kind  of  work  for  four  days,  and  had  to  spend  these  in  bed. 
In  the  first  case  there  were  no  mental  diseases  in  the  family;  in 
the  second  case  there  was  a  hereditary  predisposition  from  the 
grandmother,  who  was  insane,  and  from  the  mother,  who  was 
extremely   nervous.      The  great   mathematician   Euler  had,   in 


1  Aschaffenburg,  according  to  Kraepelin. 


142  Human  Intelligence. 


1735,  accomplished  in  three  days  some  work  which  he  expected 
would  take  him  three  months.  This  strain,  however,  caused 
him  to  be  laid  up  in  bed,  and  he,  as  it  is  reported,  then  lost  his 
sight  in  one  eye.^  It  must  also  be  mentioned  that  such  over- 
exertion often  gives  the  first  impulse  for  the  development 
of  arteriosclerosis,  particularly  of  the  brain-vessels.  In  this  con- 
nection I  may  also  point  out  the  great  frequency  of  this  dis- 
ease, which  is  caused  by  mental  overwork,  in  great  thinkers  and 
scientists.  So  had  every  one  of  the  great  scholars  described  by 
Ostwald^  shown  distinct  symptoms  of  the  disease.  We  must 
try,  by  all  means,  to  prevent  mental  fatigue  and  exhaustion,  par- 
ticularly in  persons  already  nervous;  and  we  must,  in  the  first 
place,  regulate  their  sleep.  It  should  never  be  allowed  that  sleep 
should  be  interfered  with  by  mental  work ;  even  reading  of  harm- 
less books  in  the  evening  should  be  forbidden,  particularly  if 
insomnia  already  exists.  All  kinds  of  exertion  must  be  avoided, 
because  if  in  insomnia  catabolic  poisons  are  retained  in  the 
body,  it  would  be  still  more  injurious  if  toxic  substances  should 
be  added  to  them.  That  such  fatigue  toxins  are  formed  in 
the  body  after  muscular  exertions  we  know  from  the  investi- 
gations of  Weichardt.  It  is  probable  that  in  their  destruction 
the  adrenals  play  a  very  important  part,  because  if  the  latter  are 
removed  an  exceedingly  great  fatigue  and  weakness  result;  the 
same  also  takes  place  when  the  adrenals  are  diseased,  as  in 
Addison's  disease.  These  poisons  are  surely  removed  by  another 
gland,  namely,  the  thyroid,  because  in  overactivity  of  the  latter, 
in  Basedow's  disease,  great  fatigue  constitutes  an  important 
symptom,  and,  according  to  my  observation,**  it  may  also  be 
produced  by  administration  of  overdoses  of  thyroid  extract. 

Muscular  exercises,  by  school-children  or  students,  who 
have  to  accomplish  a  great  deal  of  work,  useful  as  they  are, 
should  therefore  not  be  overdone.     At  any  rate,   should  such 


2  Moebius,  "Die  Anlage  der  Mathematik,"  /.  c,  page  49. 

3  B.  Ostwald,  Grosse  Manner,  II  Auflage,  Leipzig,  1912. 

4  Lorand,  Old  Age. 


Consequences  of  Overstrain  and  Fatigue.  143 

exercises  be  taken,  they  should  not  be  permitted  immediately 
before  nor  immediately  after  the  school  hours,  particularly  when 
the  gymnasium  is  located  in  the  school-house  and  not  in  the 
open  air.  It  must  be  laid  down  as  a  rule  that  a  child  who  is 
physically  tired  out  from  gymnasium  exercises  or  play  should 
not  have  to  do  any  studying,  as  it  very  soon  causes  mental 
fatigue.  Even  studying  is  not  accomplished  without  muscle 
strain,  and,  according  to  the  newer  investigations,  as,  for 
instance,  reported  by  Lehmann  in  Copenhagen  at  the  last  Inter- 
national Congress  for  Psychology,  the  quantity  of  carbonic  gas 
given  off  is  increased  also  by  mental  work.  The  muscle  tension 
during  the  studying  may  sometimes  be  very  great,  as,  for 
instance,  when  children,  particularly  myopics,  during  much  writ- 
ing, must  constantly  lean  forward.  Because  we  concentrate  our 
attention  on  one  point  the  muscles  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
body  are  strained.  The  movements  of  the  eyes  demand  work; 
also,  as  pointed  out  by  Ziehen,^  wrinkling  of  the  brow,  gnashing 
of  the  teeth;  also  movem.ents  of  the  facial  muscles.  When,  after 
a  certain  time,  attention  is  diminished,  then  according  to 
Kraepelin,^  through  the  incitation  of  the  will  and  impulse  to 
work,  motor  strain  sets  in.  The  most  natural  treatment  of 
fatigue  and  the  prevention  of  overexertion  mentally  would  con- 
sist in  establishing  regular  intermissions  for  rest.  Children 
should  not  work  mentally  longer  than  three-quarters  of  an  hour, 
or,  still  better,  only  half  an  hour.  Sitting  down  quietly  for  any 
length  of  time  is  just  as  unnatural  for  human  beings  as  it  is  for 
young  animals.  Jumping  around  characterizes  their  nature,  and 
is  requisite  for  them.  Of  course,  children  should  not,  during 
intermission,  run  around  wild  and  thus  cause  inability  to  study. 
After  15  or  20  minutes'  intermission  there  should  be  another 
study  period,  a  short  one.  If  one  and  the  same  subject  is  taught 
too  long,  then,  due  to  monotony,  the  interest  and  attention  of 
the  children  cease.     The  far-sighted  Ignatius  Loyola  very  prop- 


5  Ziehen,  Leitfaden  der  Psychologie,  1912. 

6  Kraepelin,  Die  geistige  Arbeit,  Jena/,  189; 


144  Human  Intelligence. 


erly  advised  his  successors  to  see  to  it  that  their  pupils  should, 
after  every  two  hours'  study,  have  one  hour  rest.  Adults  should 
also  not  study  without  interruption  longer  than  an  hour  and  a 
half  or  two  hours.  After  that  there  should  be  a  recreation 
period  or  at  least  half  an  hour,  so  that  the  study  can  be  taken 
up  afresh.  Such  recreation  periods  increase  very  much  the 
thinking  power.  In  older  children  home  work  should  be  limited 
as  much  as  possible.  To  let  them  work  at  night  would  be  a 
heartless  cruelty  and  the  surest  way  to  mental  overexertion. 
Most  frequently  overexertion  is  caused  by  the  fact  that  all 
studying  is  left  over  for  a  short  time  before  examination.  I 
consider  this  the  best  way  to  flunk  in  examination,  because,  to 
save  time,  studying  is  done  for  many  hours  without  interrup- 
tion, and  the  necessary  rest  and  recreation  are  missing.  A  brain 
which  has  not  rested  is  not  in  a  condition  for  perception,  and 
what  is  learned  does  not  become  fixed,  and  is  therefore  not 
retained. 

Notwithstanding  diligent  studying — if  It  is  done  without 
intermission — the  object  aimed  at  is  not  accomplished.  The 
time  to  think  over  the  subject  studied,  and  to  have  some  points 
which  have  not  been  perfectly  understood  cleared  up,  is  lacking, 
and  this  mental  reviewing  during  recreation  period  is,  accord- 
ing to  my  experience,  the  surest  way  to  success  in  examination. 
Of  course,  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  use  the  whole  recreation 
period  for  that  purpose ;  the  free  hour  should  not  be  injured  by 
mental  work,  but  such  a  brief  reviewing  every  two  hours  would 
not  materially  injure  the  rest  period.  The  main  law,  however, 
should  be  that  a  period  of  work  should  be  followed  by  a  period 
of  rest  and  recreation.  If  one  has  worked  strenuously  and  feels 
tired,  then  the  best  thing  to  do,  according  to  my  mind,  is  to  lie 
down  for  an  hour.  Still  better,  to  lie  down  in  a  warm  bed,  or 
sake  a  warm  bath  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  then  rest.  Of 
«;reat  advantage  are  also  free  afternoons,  particularly  when  they 
are  not  spoiled  by  too  much  home  work ;  also  holy  days.  Besides 
other  things,  the  Church  has  done  a  great  deal  of  good  for  the 


Consequences  of  Overstrain  and  Fatigue.  145 

advancement  of  the  public  health  by  the  introduction  of  holy 
days.  The  more  a  mind  has  time  to  rest  the  greater  will  be  its 
accomplishments.  It  would  be  very  desirable,  of  course,  if  on 
such  holy  days  one  would  not  be  too  much  tired  out  by  compul- 
sory marches,  too  high  mountain  climbing,  because  this  makes 
one  entirely  unfit  for  mental  work  for  some  time.  Fishing  is 
the  best  thing  for  rest  and  recreation  of  the  mind. 

Besides  rest  and  frequent  recreation  periods,  the  best  way 
to  prevent  and  treat  overexertion  and  fatigue  is  by  reparation 
of  the  used-up  strength  through  the  nerve-elements.  This  can 
best  be  done  by  sufficient  or  abundant  feeding.  Mental  over- 
exertion can  be  least  tolerated  when  the  nourishment  is  insuffi- 
cient. Weygandt  found  that  when  food  is  withdrawn,  partic- 
ularly without  supply  of  fluid,  computing  and  reading  are  very 
difficult,  and  inattentiveness  is  increased.  It  is,  therefore,  of 
great  importance  that  students  and  all  mental  workers  in  gen- 
eral should  be  well  nourished. 


10 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

Influence  of  the  Nervous   Sequel  Diseases  of 
Syphilis — Progressive   Paralysis,   its   Pre- 
vention AND  Treatment. 

When  syphilis  in  its  tertiary  form  becomes  manifest  and 
causes  destruction  of  the  bony  system  of  the  body,  the  victim 
may  be  inclined  to  curse  at  his  fate,  but  he  has  the  consolation 
of  knowing  that,  in  all  probability,  he  is  shielded  from  nervous 
sequel  diseases  of  syphilis,  namely,  tabes  and  paralytic  insanity. 
His  sufferings  are  more  easily  accessible  to  cure  with  Ehrlich's 
salvarsan  than  the  latter  diseases,  which  present  very  bad  pros- 
pects. 

Cases  of  syphilis  which,  in  the  first  place,  or  even  we  may 
say  almost  exclusively,  become  treacherously  attacked  by  those 
nerve  and  mind  deranging  sequels  of  this  disease,  are  those  who 
have  shown  only  slight  manifestations  on  the  skin  and  the  mu- 
cous membranes,  cases  in  which  "everything  went  all  right,"  as 
it  were.  Here  and  there  may  have  been  some  roseola  spots 
on  the  chest  and  abdomen,  of  which  often  no  notice  has 
been  taken,  and  the  few  white  spots  in  the  throat  and  pharynx 
passed  over  without  causing  any  difficulties ;  so  that  the  patients 
were  glad  that  they  got  off  so  easy.  And  still  it  would  have 
been  better  for  them  if  the  disease  had  manifested  itself  more 
on  the  surface  covering  of  the  body,  because  in  cases  where  the 
disease  had  appeared  virulent  on  the  surface,  nervous  or  so- 
called  parasyphilitic  (Fournier)  diseases  occur  very  rarely,  if 
ever.  Indeed,  we  have  observed  that  in  the  Orient,  in  Java, 
in  some  southern  parts  of  Europe,  where  syphilis  occurs  very 
frequently,  progressive  paralysis  among  the  natives  is  almost 
unknown.  In  the  pavilion  hospital  in  Algiers,  in  the  hospital 
on  the  Tanger,  and  in  the  hospitals  in  the  southern  parts  of 
Spain,  I  saw  a  whole  collection  of  tertiary  forms  of  syphilis, 
(146) 


Influence  of  Sequels  of  Syphilis.  147 

such  as  can  be  observed  in  Europe  only  very  rarely;  in  the 
insane  asylums,  however,  the  inmates  suffering  from  paralysis 
were  only  Europeans  or  other  foreigners,  but  not  natives.  In 
Abyssinia  almost  everybody  either  has  or  had  syphilis,  and  still 
paralysis  is  there  entirely  unknown. 

This  cannot  be  attributed  to  climatic  conditions,  because  in 
Java,  notwithstanding  the  tropical,  often  humid  and  continuous 
sweat-producing  climate,  the  Europeans  get  paralysis,  whereas 
the  Malayans  are  spared  from  it,  notwithstanding  syphilis  being 
exceedingly  frequent  among  them. 

The  cause  of  it  is  undoubtedly,  in  the  first  place,  the  well- 
known  fact  that  they  passed  through  the  tertiary  form  of 
syphilis. 

The  elder  Fournier,  in  Paris,  had  a  wide  experience  in  this 
disease,  based  upon  a  practice  of  fifty  years,  and  thus  he  was 
also  able  to  observe  that  just  those  cases  in  which  hardly  any 
syphilitic  manifestations  could  be  found  had  been  attacked  most 
frequently  by  the  sequel  diseases.  Most  of  the  paralytics  whom 
he  saw  had  had  before  only  slight  skin  manifestations,  as,  for 
instance,  of  83  paralytics  only  3  had  shown  tertiary  symptoms; 
78  had  medium  secondary  symptoms;  in  2  cases  even  the  latter 
were  absent.  He  was  able  to  follow  up  243  severe  cases  of 
syphilis,  none  of  which  became  attacked  with  paralysis. 

There  also  may  frequently  be  seen  patients  with  paralysis 
and  with  tabes,  in  whom  syphilis  has  made  so  little  manifesta- 
tion that  it  remained  unrecognized.  Not  rarely  the  place  of 
infection  with  the  syphilitic  poison  shows  only  a  slight  erosion 
of  the  skin  and  may  easily  be  overlooked.  The  port  of  entry 
of  the  infection  may  be  indicated  by  a  spot  similar  to  the  sting 
of  a  flea,  and  such  may  very  frequently  be  overlooked ;  and  also 
the  appearance  of  pale,  slightly  red  spots  on  the  skin. 

It  is  often  difficult  for  even  the  physician  to  recognize  it, 
and  still  more  so  for  the  layman.  Even  one  who  knows  he  is 
suffering  from  syphilis  may  overlook  such  manifestations,  and 
one  who  overlooked  the  primary  manifestations  of  a  chancre  is 


148  Human  Intelligence. 


still  more  liable  not  to  become  aware  of  them.  This  is  also 
obvious  from  the  fact  that  Hudovernig  and  Gussman  could  get 
no  statements  of  an  infection  having  taken  place  in  42.3  per 
cent,  afflicted  with  tertiary  symptoms.  Thus  it  may  occur,  that 
we  may  observe  cases  of  tabes  or  paralytic  dementia  in  which 
the  patient  has  never  suffered  from  syphilis  before.  To  this 
may  also  be  attributed  the  fact  that  not  so  very  long  ago  syphilis 
was  not  considered  as  the  exclusive  cause  of  these  diseases. 
Now,  however,  we  know  that  the  blood  of  the  paralytics  gives 
in  each  case  a  positive  Wassermann  reaction,  according  to  Plant, 
for  instance,  in  each  of  his  245  cases.  Thus  the  syphilitic  origin 
of  the  disease  is  positively  established. 

The  fact  that  Orientals  are  so  immune  to  these  diseases 
may  probably  be  attributed  also  to  two  other  causes,  which 
we  want  to  mention  particularly,  because  they  form  the  most 
important  initiatives  for  the  origin  of  softening  of  the  brain, 
namely:  (i)  alcohol;  (2)  their  quiet  dispositions,  and  lack  of 
continuous  emotions  to  which  the  Europeans  are  exposed,  which 
disturb  the  blood-circulation  in  the  brain. 

According  to  Junius  and  Arndt,  alcohol  does  not  preferably 
lead  to  the  outbreak  of  paralysis  more  than  to  any  other  mental 
disease.  Kraepelin,  however,  has  observed  it  more  frequently  in 
individuals  indulging  in  alcohol.  He  found  that  among  his  male 
patients  42  per  cent.,  and  among  the  female  15.6  per  cent,  have 
used  two  or  more  liters  of  beer  daily.  The  lower  educational 
standard,  the  more  rare  exaltations  of  the  Orientals,  the  uncon- 
cerned life  which  is  lived  among  the  Malayans  of  Java  and 
inhabitants  of  the  southern  zones  must  also  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. It  is  remarkable  that  individuals  of  vivid  mentality, 
in  whom  the  brain  is  most  active,  more  frequently  become  the 
victims  of  this  frightful  destruction  of  the  mind.  For  instance, 
the  composer  Schumann,  and  also  Nietzsche,  Lenau,  Markart, 
have   been  afflicted  with  this   disease.      Moebius^    considers  it 


1  Moebius,  Ueber  Robert  Schumanns  Krankheit,  Halle,  1906. 


Influence  of  Sequels  of  Syphilis.  149 

doubtful  that  Schumann  had  been  suffering  from  this  disease; 
when  one,  however,  reads  the  post-mortem  report  of  Dr. 
Richarz,  and  takes  into  consideration  the  various  pecuHarities  of 
the  composer,  he  finds  many  things  calling  to  mind  paralytic 
dementia.  It  is  very  remarkable  that  with  Nietzsche  the  disease 
lasted  almost  nineteen  years,  whereas,  as  a  rule,  the  duration  of 
the  disease  is  considered  to  be  from  two  to  three-  and  one-half 
years.  Moebius,  however,  justly  says  that  the  beginning  of  the 
disease  is  often  overlooked,  and  its  duration  is  considered  only 
the  time  of  confinement  to  the  asylum  until  death. 

Sometimes  years  pass  by  without  the  afflicted  person  pre- 
senting any  conspicuous  symptoms.  It  may  even  occur  that 
some  faculties  are  increased,  just  as  is  the  case  in  other  mental 
diseases  in  their  beginning.  So  we  find,  for  instance,  in  the 
case  of  Nietzsche  a  particular  beauty  of  language,  an  affluence 
of-  wonderful  thoughts,  and,  aside  from  these,  thoughts  of  a 
very  bizarre  nature,  indicating  the  beginning  of  mental  flighti- 
ness.  It  was  during  the  initial  period  of  the  disease  that  he 
manifested  the  condition  of  euphoria,  a  predominating  feeling 
of  well-being,  which  is  peculiar  to  this  disease.  Under  its  influ- 
ence Nietzsche  accomplished,  during  the  first  years  of  this  dread- 
ful disease,  an  enormous  amount  of  mental  work,  and  wrote  a 
number  of  books  which  won  great  approbation.  When  we, 
how^ever,  read  over  some  of  them,  as,  for  instance,  "Zara- 
thustra,"  it  is  possible  to  notice  in  many  places  signs  of  demen- 
tia. The  particular  point,  which  is  striking  to  everybody,  is  the 
peculiar  train  of  thought,  which  is  so  characteristic  of  this  dis- 
ease, and  that  is  the  absence  of  any  proportional  limitation. 
That  unlimited  trend  of  thought  which  trespasses  all  boundaries 
in  every  regard  is  the  peculiarity  which  characterizes  the  para- 
lytic, and  this  we  find  frequently  in  Nietzsche.  The  paralytic 
has  the  most  bizarre  ideas.  Even  when  the  contradiction  and 
absurdity  are  clearly  apparent,  he  does  not  mind  it  much,  and 
passes  over  everything.  His  ideas  are  adventurous,  absurd  to  the 
highest  degree.    At  the  same  time  a  whirl  of  color  changes  occur, 


150  Human  Intelligence. 


like  in  a  kaleidoscope;  nothing  is  lasting — just  the  opposite  from 
what  is  found  in  paranoiacs.  Thought  and  action  are  without 
deliberation;  there  is  no  consecutiveness  in  grasping  things  and 
perceptions.  Anything  of  systematic  nature  is,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  disease,  disliked  by  the  patient.  The  ideas  of  the  paralytic 
do  not  follow  one  another  in  any  order;  he  cannot  keep  time, 
and  even  forgets  the  names  of  months  and  days.  Derangement 
in  the  highest  degree,  the  most  terrible  forget  fulness,  as  seen  in 
Korsakow's  disease,  is  the  most  conspicuous  symptom.  One  of 
Kraepelin's  patients,  for  instance,  who  was  working  on  a  build- 
ing one  morning,  could  not  find  the  place  where  he  was  employed. 

I  know  of  one  paralytic  colleague  who,  while  he  was 
examining  a  patient,  left  the  room  to  give  some  order  to  his 
valet  and  then  forgot  his  patient  and  went  out  to  make  his  calls. 
Whereas  we  see  in  many  idiots  the  ease  with  which  they  can 
impress  some  things  on  their  minds  and  retain  them,  but  lack 
in  association  memory;  we  observe  in  paralytics.,  according  to 
Goldstein's  investigations,  just  the  opposite.  The  paralytic  is 
able  to  associate  ideas  fairly  well,  but  he  cannot  impress  them 
on  his  mind,  or  only  with  great  difficulty.  In  idiocy,  as  well  as 
in  paralysis,  we  observe  the  highest  degree  of  mental  debiHty. 

Whereas  the  idiot  is  not  able  to  acquire  even  the  most  ele- 
mentary knowledge,  and  in  the  highest  grade  of  the  disease  his 
life  resembles  more  the  life  of  a  beast,  and  he  soils  himself  with 
his  own  excrements,  we  observe  in  the  paralytic  the  greatest 
failing  of  the  sometimes  extraordinary  brightness  which  for- 
merly existed,  the  sudden  drop  from  the  highest  point  of  mental 
efficiency  to  the  lowest,  often  to  that  of  an  animal.  It  is 
remarkable  that,  in  the  beginning  of  the  trouble,  when  the 
patient  is  apparently  still  able  to  attend  to  his  business  affairs, 
shameless  offenses  against  decency  may  occur,  such-  as  satisfy- 
ing his  wants  publicly,  which  leads  then  to  the  recognition  of 
the  disease.  There  are,  of  course,  also  other  slight  indications 
of  the  disease,  such  as  disorders  of  speech,  of  writing  (tremor), 


Influence  of  Sequels  of  Syphilis.  151 

in  general  behavior ;  but  not  rarely  all  these  are  overlooked  until 
the  disease  is  well  established.  Kraepelin  reports  a  case  of  a 
very  busy  physician  who  came  to  the  hospital  to  be  operated  on 
for  a  finger  ulcer.  During  the  night  he  wandered  into  the  female 
ward,  was  there  arrested,  and  it  was  only  due  to  his  confused 
speech  that  it  was  recognized  that  he  was  suffering  from 
paralytic  dementia. 

The  saddest  thing  is  that  in  facing  this  most  terrible  of  all 
mental  diseases,  when  it  is  fully  developed,  we  stand  entirely 
helpless.  Salvarsan  is  of  no  avail,  and  the  same  is  also  true  of 
the  old-established  mercurial  treatments  against  syphilis;  some- 
times they  even  aggravate  the  conditions.  We  have  to  deal  here 
with  such  grave  changes  in  the  brain-substance  that  our  remedies 
naturally  fail. 

How  can  a  remedy  act  when  atrophy  and  contraction  of  the 
brain-cortex  have  taken  place  ?  It  is  true  that  recently,  as  already 
mentioned,  there  have  been  cases  in  which  considerable  improve- 
ment was  observed  after  artificially  produced  fever,  but  in  these 
cases  undoubtedly  considerable  portions  of  brain-cortex  have 
remained  intact.  It  is,  therefore,  of  utmost  importance  to  get 
hold  of  the  case  at  the  beginning  of  it,  before  diffuse  destruction 
of  the  brain-cortex  has  taken  place.  In  the  first  place,  it  is 
necessary  to  ascertain  when  the  malady  was  first  begun.  This, 
however,  is  often  difficult,  because  there  are  a  number  of  symp- 
toms which  also  occur  in  neurasthenia,  and  are,  therefore,  not 
exactly  specific.  There  are,  however,  some  which  could  be  made 
use  of,  such  as  the  frequent  occurrence  of  eye-migraine  with 
scintillating  scotoma  in  individuals  who  never  before  suffered 
from  migraine,  and  neither  suffer  from  uric  acid  diathesis  or 
any  other  nervous  temperament.  If  a  person  has  at  any  time 
been  infected  with  syphilis,  and  he  many  years  later  exhibits 
symptoms  of  neurasthenia,  this  may,  with  all  probability,  be 
attributed  to  syphilis,  in  case  he  never  suffered  from  neurasthe- 
nia before.  The  latter  is,  at  any  rate,  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  those  who  formerly  had  syphilis;  it  takes  place  almost,  I  may 


152  Human  Intelligence. 


say,  in  every  case  in  which  syphilis  has  not  been  radically  cured, 
and  the  Wassermann  blood  examination  is  still  positive;  but 
sometimes  also  in  well-treated  cases  in  which  the  Wasser- 
mann reaction  is  negative.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary,  first  of  all, 
to  examine  the  blood,  and  if  the  reaction  should  prove  positive 
a  salvarsan  or  mercurial  treatment  is  to  be  instituted.  In  pro- 
gressive paralysis  the  reaction  is  almost  always  positive.  If  we 
should  succeed  by  the  treatment  to  transform  a  positive  reaction 
into  a  negative  one,  and  continuous  succeeding  examination  by 
lumbar  puncture  should  continuously  show  negative  reaction, 
then  we  have  the  best  chances  of  preventing  softening  of  the 
brain. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that,  when  the  disease  is  well  developed, 
the  chances  in  regard  to  cure  are  very  remote,  all  depends  upon 
the  recognition  of  the  first  signs  of  the  approaching  disease  and 
the  possibility  of  arresting  it.  One  of  the  most  important  signs 
which  may  be  present,  as  a  prodrome  in  tabes  as  well  as  in  soft- 
ening of  the  brain,  for  a  number  of  years,  is  sluggishness  or 
stiffness  of  the  pupils  toward  the  action  of  light;  also  the  iso- 
lated reflex  stiffness  of  the  pupils  whereby  convergence  motility 
is  retained. 

Before  full  stiffness  is  manifest  there  exists  in  the  beginning 
only  a  sluggishness  of  the  reflexes.  It  is  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance to  get  hold  of  the  case  as  soon  as  the  disease  is  recognized. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  malady,  before  great  destructions  have 
taken  place,  iodine  may  act  favorably,  but  when  the  disease  is 
fully  developed  the  latter  will  be  of  little  help. 

If,  therefore,  we  find  in  an  individual  who  at  one  time 
contracted  syphilis  and  some  years  later  had  attacks  of  migraine 
with  glimmering  of  the  eyes  and  a  number  of  other  nervous 
troubles,  and,  besides  that,  isolated  reflex  stiffness  of  the  pupils 
with  retained  converging  movements,  there  is  a  probability  of 
approaching  progressive  paralysis  or  tabes,  and  medical  atten- 
tion should  be  instituted  at  once  with  the  greatest  energy.  This 
is  particularly  the  case  when  the  Wassermann  reaction  is  posi- 


Influence  of  Sequels  of  Syphilis.  153 

tive  and,  in  addition,  the  cerebrospinal  fluid  shows  increase  of 
globulin  and  pleocytosis.  Energetic  salvarsan-mercurial  treat- 
ment should  be  undertaken,  and  by  all  means  an  attempt  should 
be  made  to  bring  about  a  change  of  the  positive  reaction  into 
a  negative.  Owing  to  the  good  results  obtained  by  Pilcz  and 
his  collaborators  with  the  tuberculin  treatment,  and  also  the  good 
results  by  Fischer  with  nucleinate  of  sodium,  they  should  be 
used  simultaneously  in  this  initial  stage. 

In  cases  in  which  a  previous  syphilitic  infection  has 
occurred,  the  presence  of  reflex  stiffness  of  the  pupils,  evea  in 
the  absence  of  other  symptoms,  is  sufficient  to  warrant  an 
energetic  fever-producing  treatment  after  a  positive  reaction  of 
the  blood  and  the  cerebrospinal  fluid.  It  would  be  appropriate 
for  everyone  who  has  had  a  syphilitic  infection  to  have  his 
blood  examined  at  frequent  intervals,  and  as  soon  as  the  reac- 
tion becomes  positive  therapeutic  procedures  should  at  once  be 
instituted.  Only  through  radical  treatment  of  syphilis  is  there 
a  possibility  of  preventing  its  sequel  diseases.  Tabes,  as  well  as 
progressive  paralysis,  can  be  observed  most  frequently  in  patients 
who  have  not  undergone  any  radical  treatment,  who  have  been 
treated,  as  is  frequently  the  custom  in  France,  Latin  countries, 
as  also  in  America,  simply  with  internal  remedies.  Fournier 
found  that  of  79  paralytics,  only  4  had  radical  treatment,  12  had 
not  quite  sufficient  treatment,  and,  37  had  been  treated  less  than 
half  a  year.  Energetic  treatment  of  syphilis  can  only  be  accom- 
plished with  salvarsan,  or,  better  still,  with  combination  of  sal- 
varsan  with  mercurial  treatment.  The  latter  by  means  of  oily, 
calomel,  salicylic  or  thymol  combination.  It  is  well  understood 
that  several  courses  of  treatment  are  necessary,  depending  on  the 
results  of  the  Wassermann  reaction  which  should  be  frequently 
undertaken. 

At  the  end  of  the  course  of  treatment  it  is  advisable,  for 
precaution  sake,  to  take  some  iodine,  but  not  in  too  large  quan- 
tities; not  more  than  ^  to  i  gram  per  day.  It  is  also  proper 
that  a  patient,  who  previously  had  syphilis,  particularly  when 


154  Human  Intelligence. 


he  is  nervous,  or  in  whose  family  nervous  cases  frequently 
occur,  should  from  time  to  time  have  his  condition  watched  by 
a  neurologist  or  psychiatrist.  This  is  particularly  necessary 
when  those  around  the  patient  have  noticed  in  his  behavior  some 
deviation  from  the  usual.  The  point  is  to  notice  the  first 
lightning.  There  are  some  typical  signs  which  indicate  the 
oncoming  storm,  as,  for  instance,  disturbances  of  speech  and 
writing.  In  reading  aloud,  those  individuals  who  have  formerly 
been  untiring,  become  tired  very  soon,  the  words  soon  become 
blended ;  the  writing,  compared  with  that  done  formerly,  becomes 
tremulous,  the  character  of  the  writing  easily  changed.  Such 
disturbances,  Thomson,  in  Bonne,  had  observed  sometimes  years 
before  the  outbreak  of  the  disease.  Such  changes  may  best  be 
noticed  by  the  keen  eye  of  the  wife  of  the  patient,  or  by  his 
relatives;  significant  in  this  respect  may  also  be  the  sudden  for- 
getfulness  in  regard  to  important  engagements,  if  it  happens  in 
persons  formerly  very  punctual.  Unfortunately,  such  mental 
changes  in  individuals  who  otherwise  follow  a  certain  routine 
in  their  behavior  may  easily  be  overlooked  until  it  is  too  late 
and  irreparable  changes  have  taken  place. 

Those  surrounding  the  patient  may  also  be  misled,  even 
when  the  disease  has  existed  for  some  time,  by  the  particular 
well-being  of  the  patient;  but  this  is  often  just  a  typical  sign 
of  the  disease.  When  inmates  of  asylums  which  I  visit,  in 
response  to  my  questions  answer  that  they  feel  splendid, 
"heavenly  well,"  then  the  diagnosis  becomes  most  probable.  In 
such  cases  it  may  often  be  already  too  late,  because  the  first 
lightning  was  overlooked,  and  the  storm  has  already  broken 
out.  Even  salvarsan  is  not  of  any,  use.  The  safest  way  is  to 
get  hold  of  it  before  visible  changes  of  speech  and  writing 
have  taken  place,  and,  therefore,  it  is  best  to  keep  expert  con- 
trol, as  above  mentioned,  by  examination  of  the  pupillary 
reflexes  and  disturbances  of  other  functions.  There  is  hardly 
any  other  domain  in  therapeutics  where  the  proverb,  "An  ounce 
of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure,"  may  be  better  applied. 


Influence  of  Sequels  of  Syphilis.  155 

It  would  be  very  wise  if  in  public  lectures  on  the  dangers  of 
syphilis  this  point  on  the  prevention  of  sequel  diseases  was 
emphasized  particularly;  it  might  prevent  an  enormous  amount 
of  misery. 

Of  the  various  sequel  diseases  of  syphilis,  progressive  paral- 
ysis is  just  the  one  which  injures  the  mental  faculties  in  the 
highest  degree,  and  we,  therefore,  will  mention  some  more  pre- 
ventive measures  in  the  next  chapter.  Tabes  never  carries  with 
it  any  serious  mental  disturbances,  unless  it  is  a  case  of  tabo- 
paralysis.  The  other  syphilitic  sequels  in  the  brain  may  pro- 
duce disturbances  only  by  their  special  localization,  except  the 
rare  processes  of  a  diffuse  nature.  This  dreadful  scourge  of 
humanity  may  harm  the  mentality  in  still  another  way,  and  that 
is  by  producing  arteriosclerosis  in  the  blood-vessels  of  the  brain. 
The  latter  is  also  a  very  frequent  cause  of  disturbed  mentality. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

The   Nature  and   Origin   of   Paralytic   Dementia. 

In  the  various  reports  of  my  observations  on  the  African 
sleeping  sickness  I  have  expressed  the  opinion  that  after  grave 
infectious  diseases,  which,  as  is  known,  injure  the  thyroid  gland, 
there  generally  occurs  a  condition  resembling  myxedema.  For 
instance,  many  years  ago  Professor  Darier,  of  Paris,  referred 
to  me  a  patient  suffering  from  an  anesthetic  form  of  lepra  (with 
additional  development  of  a  tuberous  form  later).  I  found  a 
myxedematous  condition  with  swelling  of  the  face  and  hands 
and  sluggish  mentality,  and  was  able,  by  means  of  thyroid 
treatment,  which  was  later  continued  by  Darier  in  Paris,  to 
obtain  a  reduction  of  the  swelling  and  consWerable  improve- 
ment of  the.  mental  faculties.  In  regard  to  sleeping  sickne-ss  I 
have-  also  called  the  attention,  in  my  paper  before  the  German 
Congress  for  Internal  Medicine  at  Wiesbaden  in  1905,  to  the 
fact  that  this  disease  differs  entirely  from  trypanosomiasis, 
and  is  only,  a  sequel  disease  of  the  latter.  I  also  called  atten- 
tion at  that  time  to  the  first  microscopic  changes  in  the 
blood-vessels  of  the  brain,  with  accumulation  of  lymphocytes, 
resembling  the  condition  found  in  paralytic  dementia.  This 
resemblance  becomes  most  striking  in  cases  of  paralytic  demen- 
tia associated  with  sleepiness.  The  similarity  in  the  beginning 
of'  the  two  diseases  is  also  very  marked.  It  generally  takes  at 
least  from  five  to  seven  years,  sometimes  more,  sometimes  less, 
for  the  appearance  of  sleeping  sickness  after  trypanosomiasis. 
I  have  already  mentioned  on  that  occasion  that  we  have  here 
to  deal  with  two  different  diseases,  the  first  one  of  which  is 
infectious,  and  is  characterized  by  the  symptoms  of  overactivity 
of  the  thyroid,  resembling  the  condition  found  in  Basedow's 
disease.  After  this  overactivity  there  follows  an  exhaustion 
which  is  a  condition  similar  in  characteristics  to  myxedema; 
(156) 


Nature  of  Paralytic  Dementia.  157 

among  these  characteristics  is  sleepiness,  which  we  also  find  in 
other  inactive  conditions  of  the  thyroid,  as,  for  example,  the 
endogenous  obesity  which  I  have  described. 

Conditions  similar  to  the  above  we  find  in  paralytic  demen- 
tia. The  role  of  trypanosomiasis  is,  in  the  latter  instance,  played 
by  syphilis.  The  latter,  like  all  infectious  diseases,  affects  also 
the  thyroid  without  exception.  The  object  of  the  thyroid,  as 
I  have  frequently  emphasized,  is  obviously  to  protect  us  against 
various  kinds  of  infection;  correspondingly  it  presents,  as  a  rule, 
a  condition  of  overactivity  during  the  first  stage  of  syphilis,  and 
during  the  secondary  eruptive  stage  of  the  latter  a  distinct 
swelling  of  the  thyroid  may  become  manifest.  This  swelling, 
as  mentioned  already  by  Engel  Reimers,  is  more  conspicuous  in 
women  than  in  men,  and  may  sometimes  lead  to  development  of 
a  fair-sized  goiter.  In  some  cases  the  latter  may  remain  per- 
manent for  a  number  of  years.  Last  summer  I  had  an  oppor- 
tunity to  treat  a  case  of  neurasthenia  after  syphilis  in  a  patient 
from  a  town  in  the  southern  part  of  Hungary.  In  that  locality 
goiters  surely  do  not  occur,  but  this  patient  had  one  goiter  which 
could  be  plainly  felt  on  the  left  lobe  of  the  thyroid,  and  another, 
although  of  smaller  dimensions,  on  the  middle  lobe.  The  par- 
ticipation of  the  thyroid  in  syphilis,  and  its  changes  by  it  is  well- 
nigh  generally  admitted;  by  this,  however,  is  not  meant  a  spe- 
cial localization  of  syphilitic  infection,  but  the  swelling  is  con- 
sidered as  a  reaction  indicating  the  antitoxic  activity  of  the 
organ.  After  such  overactivity  of  the  gland,  an  exhaustion  and 
underactivity  of  it  may  take  place — hypothyroiditis,  and  also  a 
condition  resembling  myxedema.  Very  frequently  I  have  ob- 
served after  syphilitic  infections,  particularly  in  women,  a  con- 
siderable obesity  of  the  "speckig"  kind,  as  I  called  it,  which 
cannot  be  attributed  to  overfeeding  or  continuous  rest.  We 
have  to  deal  here  with  endogenous  obesity,  which  is  due  to  the 
changes  in  the  ductless  glands.^ 


1  Lorand,  Medizinische  Klinik,  1905. 


158  Human  Intelligence. 


This  variety  of  obesity  occurs  in  paral3^ic  dementia,  and 
Kraepelin  points  out  particularly  that  the  latter  constitutes  a 
manifestation  of  a  disturbance  of  metabolism.  He  places  para- 
lytic dementia  in  one  group  with  myxedema,  with  diabetes  and 
with  acromegalia.  Only  the  grave  cases  of  diabetes  may  be,  as 
I  have  already  pointed  out,  drawn  in  here  for  comparison, 
because  they  also  show  the  most  symptoms  of  myxedema. 
Acetonuria,  the  main  symptom  of  the  grave  form  of  diabetes, 
occurs  also  in  paralytic  dementia. 

There  are  also  present  a  number  of  trophic  disturbances, 
such  as  we  find  displayed  in  myxedema  as  well  as  in  grave 
diabetes :  flabby,  dry  skin ;  often  premature  graying  of  the  hair ; 
falling  out  of  the  teeth.  Brittle  bones  we  find  in  grave  diabetes 
as  well  as  in  paralytic  dementia.  After  a  manifested  obesity 
there  follows  in  paralytic  dementia,  however,  an  emaciation,  and 
a  similar  condition  we  find  also  in  myxedema  in  its  last  stage. 

I  would  like  to  bring  in  here,  for  comparison  also,  the 
similar  conditions  in  lepra.  At  the  instigation  of  the  late  Dr. 
Isidor  Neumann,  who  at  that  time  was  my  chief,  I  visited,  in 
1895,  the  leper  stations  in  Jerfso,  Sweden,  and  in  Reitsjaerdet, 
in  Norway,  and  wandered  around  also  in  Dalekarlien  for  the 
purpose  of  studying  the  cases  of  lepra  scattered  there.  There 
I  was  able  to  observe,  particularly  in  the  anesthetic  forms  of 
lepra,  the  typical  symptoms  of  myxedema,  the  same  as  found  in 
Dr.  Darier's  patient  mentioned  above. 

One  common  corresponding  point  of  similarity  of  paralytic 
dementia  and  the  sleeping  sickness  is,  that  here  also  a  number 
of  years  elapse  between  the  manifestation  of  the  disease  and 
the  infection.  Lepra  is,  therefore,  particularly  in  its  anesthetic, 
nervous  form,  a  sequel  disease,  developed  a  number  of  years 
after  infection  has  taken  place,  the  same  as  it  is  in  the  case 
of  paralytic  dementia. 

From  the  above  description  we  can  draw  some  useful  prac- 
tical applications.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  degeneration  of 
the  thyroid  gland,  in  consequence  of  the  syphilitic  infection, 


Nature  of  Paralytic  Dementia.  159 

undoubtedly  plays  a  great  role  in  the  development  of  its  sequel 
diseases, — the  paralytic  dementia, — we  must  improve  the  func- 
tions of  the  thyroid  by  thyroid  treatment.  In  this  way  it 
becomes  possible  to  increase  the  metabolism,  first  of  all,  of 
lime  and  phosphorus,  which  are  just  the  ones  most  seriously 
affected  in  paralysis.  The  endogenous  obesity  is  followed  by 
cachexia,  and  the  presence  of  lecithin  in  the  excrements  and  its 
absence  in  the  bone-marrow  indicate  most  clearly  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  phosphorus  compounds. 

By  means,  of.  thyroid  treatment  we  must  consequently  try 
to  prevent  these  gra.ve  injuries  which  undoubtedly  act  as  con- 
tributing causes  to*  the  origin  of  the  disease  after  syphilis.  In 
view  of  the  fact  that  lack  of  antitoxic  substances  in  the  blood 
in  paralysis  has  been  established,  the  thyroid  treatment  may  act 
favorably  also  in  this  respect.  Moreover,  the  favorable  results 
obtained  by  the  frequent  trial  recently  of  artificially  induced  fever 
have  an  intimate  relation  to  the  increase  of  thyroid  activity  which 
is  caused  by  the  latter.  Actually  fever  and  overactivity  of  the 
thyroid,  as,  for  instance,  in  Basedow's  disease,  present  similar 
symptoms. 

From  this  follows  the-  necessity  for  preventing  paralytic 
dementia  by  the  administration  of  small  doses  of  iodine  and  thy- 
roid tablets  for  some  time  after  finishing  antisyphilitic  treatment. 
We  know,  as  I  have  so  often  pointed  out,  that  iodine  acts  only 
through  the  thyroid  gland.  If  too  large  quantities  of  it,  how- 
ever, are  given  the  thyroid  activity  will  soon  become  rather 
reduced.  Thyroid  preparations  must  also  be  administered  in 
small  doses.  If  iodine  is  given  simultaneously  with  small  doses 
of  thyroid,  the  action  is,  according  to  my  observations,  increased. 
The  best  way  to  administer  iodine,  as  well  as  thyroid,  is  in  inter- 
vals, three  to  four  weeks'  courses.  We  are  administering  iodine 
not  as  a  remedy  against  syphilis,  but  to  prevent  the  sequel 
diseases,  because  it  elevates  the  thyroid  activity. 

It  is  advisable  to  partake  at  the  same  time  of  nourishment 
rich  in  phosphorus  and  lime,  and  also  to  observe  all  hygienic  direc- 


160  Human  Intelligence. 


tions  given  in  Section  IV.  First  of  all,  it  is  necessary  to  avoid 
alcohol,  because  it  acts  very  unfavorably  upon  the  thyroid,  the 
liver  and  kidney.  The  liver  and  the  kidney  are  also  found 
changed  in  paralysis,  and  may  also  probably  be  a  contributing 
cause  to  the  development  of  the  disease.  Strong  emotions  and 
mental  overstrain  should  also  be  avoided,  as  these  two  factors 
play  a  great  role,  as  mentioned  above,  in  the  origin  of  paralysis. 
For  patients  whose  means  permit  it,  a  sunny  climate,  sojourn 
in  the  high  mountains,  a  southern  resting-place  during  the  win- 
ter is  particularly  to  be  recommended.  Even  when  paralysis  has 
already  broken  out,  such  a  residence  in  a  sunny  climate  may 
relieve  the  condition;  this  is  seen  in  the  example  of  Nietzsche, 
who  often  mentions  in  his  letters  that  he  feels  best  in  the  south 
in  the  sunshine  of  the  Swiss  mountains. 


CHAPTER    XX. 

The  Influence  of   Nervousness,   Neurasthenia  and 
Hysteria,   and   the  Treatment   of   This   Condi- 
tion  According   to   the   Newer   Principles. 

Individuals  who  are  suffering  from  neurasthenia  or  hys- 
teria are  usually  considered  nervous.  Nervous  is  what  we  call 
a  man  who  is  either  sensitive  in  an  extraordinarily  high  degree, 
even  to  the  slightest  irritations  which  act  upon  him,  or  one  who 
feels  very  little,  even  very  strong  irritations.  The  first  character- 
izes, in  the  first  place,  hysterical  women,  but  many  men  also  suffer 
from  it;  the  second  occurs  mainly  in  neurasthenia,  the  nervous 
weakness  of  men,  but  is  found  not  rarely  in  hysteria.  Neuras- 
thenia is  not  restricted  to  men  only,  because  just  as  there  are  hys- 
terics among  men,  so  there  are  also  neurasthenic  women.  Both 
affections  have  in  common  that  in  those  afflicted  the  correct  judg- 
ment for  irritations  taking  place  has  been  lost ;  they  perceive  and 
feel  everything  in  an  entirely  different  way  from  normal  men. 
Whereas,  the  neurasthenic  does  not  estimate  correctly  the  degree 
of  irritation,  the  hysteric  gives  it  a  false  interpretation.  In  the 
higher  grades  of  hysteria  there  also  occur  spasms  and  paralyses 
which  distinguish  it  very  substantially  from  neurasthenia. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  in  these  conditions  the  proper 
judgment  for  impressions,  as,  for  instance,  for  sense  perceptions, 
is  lacking,  and  as  our  whole  thinking  is  based  upon  impressions, 
it  is  conceivable  that  nervous  individuals  also  think  differently 
from  normal,  and  consequently  deviations  in  the  form  of  think- 
ing will  be  noticed.  In  the  first  place,  they  will  frequently  lack 
the  faculty  of  quiet  deliberation,  because  they  allow  themselves 
to  be  carried  away  by  their  impulsive  disposition.  The  latter 
leads  them  frequently  to  premature,  prejudiced  opinions,  lack- 
ing any  plausible  basis.  This  is  manifested  in  highest  degree 
in  the  capriciousness  of  hysterical  women,  who  frequently  are 

11  (161) 


162  Human  Intelligence. 


hardly  able  to  do  any  kind  of  mental  work.  Very  embarrassing 
for  them,  in  this  respect,  is  their  extraordinary  absent-minded- 
ness, which  is  caused  by  the  fact  that  their  whole  attention  is 
taken  up  by  their  own  condition,  and  is  entirely  lacking  in 
thought  for  anything  else.  They  are  also  dull  of  percep- 
tion, and  this  explains  their  great  forgetfulness.  One  such 
lady  once  left  her  pocketbook  in  my  office;  the  next  time  she 
forgot  her  gloves,  and  at  another  time  her  umbrella.  The  con- 
tinuous, almost  exclusive  thinking  about  their  own  condition 
makes  them  blind  to  anything  else;  and  such  persons  are  often 
seen  walking  in  the  street  as  if  dreaming,  and  not  noticing  even 
their  best  acquaintances.  For  this  reason  accidents  may  some- 
times occur  in  places  where  traffic  is  great ;  often  the  victims  are 
hysterical  women  in  climacterium,  witk  absent-mindedness  of 
high  degree;  particularly  is  this  the  case  in  old  maids. 

The  intelligence  is  not  actually  disturbed,  even  in  hysterical 
women.  Not  rarely  there  may  be  found  among  them  individuals 
of  particularly  highly  developed  intellect,  but  they  are  often 
liable  to  exaggerate  things-,  just  because  their  perception  of  the 
sensory  impulses  is  abnormally  high.  In  some  grave  cases  of 
hysteria  the  sensory  impulses  are  falsely  interpreted,  recollec- 
tions are  false,  and  if  they  happen  to  appear  on  the  witness 
stand  their  testimony  is  false.  It  is  curious  that,  while  they 
exaggerate  slight  impressions,  they  are  often  liable  -to  under- 
estimate those  which  produce  the  sjtrongest  reactions  in  norma-l 
individuals.  As  a  very  instructive  example  I  will  relate  he-re 
the  case  mentioned  by  Oppenheim.^  One  of  his  hysterical 
patients  told  him  that  she  cried  when  she  read  novels,  but 
remained  calm  when  her  only  beloved  daughter  died.  Some- 
times we  read  in  the  newspapers  of  the  cruelties  practised  by 
women  on  their  own  children,  and  it  is  possible'  that  this  is 
sometimes  the  case  when  committed  by  mothers  who  love  their 
children  very  dearly.  Hysterical  women  can  become  very  greatly 
excited  by  insignificant  things,  whereas  the  most  important  oc- 

1  Oppenheim,  Lehrbuch  der  Nervenkrankheit,  IV  Aufl.,  S.  1057. 


Influence  of  Nervousness  and  Treatment.  163 

currences  often  leave  them  calm,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of 
neurasthenic  men.  Much  of-  what  has  been  mentioned  above 
occurs  in  a  greater  or  lesser  degree  also  in  the  latter,  but  there 
seems  to  be  a  great  difference  between  them  in  one  mental  point. 
Hysterical  women  are  easily  influenced  by  suggestion,  This  sug- 
gestibility is  significant  of  their  disease,  and  for  that  reason  they 
are  very  credulous,  and  also  superstitious.  Every  new  religious 
sect,  even  the  most  rash,  finds  followers  among  them.  They 
lack  good  judgment.  Neurasthenics,  on  the  other  hand,  possess 
rather  too  much  of  the  latter.  They  easily  become  suspicious 
and  interpret  everything  for  the  worst.  Hysterical  women  are 
mostly  optimistic,  but  this  is  more  rarely  or  almost  never  the 
case  with  neurasthenics;  the  latter  are  more  or  less  inclined 
toward  pessimism,  and  their  depressed  condition  does  not  so  often 
pass  Into  the  other  extreme  as  in  hysterics.  The  condition  of  be- 
ing one  day  deeply  grieved  and  the  next  day  very  joyful,  which  Is 
so  characteristic  of  hysterics.  Is  more  rare  in  neurasthenics. 
Their  judgment  is  thus  domxinated  by  the  spiritual  condition, 
which  is  more  inclined  toward  sadness.  Unlike  so  many  hys- 
terics who  see  everythln-g  so  vividly  through  rose^colored 
glasses,  the  neurasthenics  see  everything  through  black  or  smoky 
glasses,  as  It  were;  everything  seems  black  and  hopeless.  In 
their  depressed  condition  they  resemble  more  those  suffering 
from  melancholic  psychoses.  Generally  speaking,  from  neuras- 
thenia and  hysteria  as  a  starting  point,  mainly  of  the  in- 
herited kind,  psychoses  may  occur.  It  has  been  already  pointed 
out  In  other  parts  of  th-is  book  that  between  the  two  extreme 
conditions,  the  normal  mental  state  on  the  one  hand  and  fully 
developed  mental  disease  on  the  other,  there  are  a  number  of 
transitional  states,  and  neurasthenia  and  hysteria  may  be  con- 
sidered as  two  such  states.  According  to  the  symptoms  we  may 
here  also  distinguish  the  two  large  groups  mentioned  above  as 
in  the  usual  mental  diseases  : — 

I.  Cases    with    conditions    of    exaltation,    whereby    slight 
stimulations  produce  exaggerated  impulses. 


164  Human  Intelligence. 


2.  Cases  with  conditions  of  depression  in  which  even  great 
stimulations  are  not  strongly  felt  and  small  ones  find  no  great 
resistance. 

As  is  the  case  in  mental  diseases,  the  two  conditions  may 
occur  alternately  in  the  same  person;  usually,  however,  one  is 
predominant.  The  entire  mental  activity  will  vary  according  to 
the  predominance  of  the  one  or  the  other  condition,  depending 
upon  whether  the  nervous  system  is  in  a  state  of  overexaltation 
or  depression.  In  depressed  condition  the  sensory  stimulations 
and  impressions  will  not  be  as  rapidly  and  as  acutely  perceived 
and  utilized,  the  mental  perceptions  based  upon  them  will  be 
retarded  and  indistinct,  and  judgment  is  disturbed.  The  nervous 
system  becomes  here  rapidly  exhausted  and  every  physical  or 
mental  activity  is  soon  followed  by  fatigue.  Their  lack  of 
attentiveness  and  their  absent-mindedness  cause  bad  memory. 
It  is  for  that  reason  that  we  find  such  patients  always  making 
memoranda  on  small  pieces  of  paper  about  everything  they  want 
to  ask  the  doctor, — "I'homme  aux  petits  papiers"  of  the 
French.  In  exalted  neurasthenics  deficient  memory  also  often 
occurs;  here  the  thoughts  flash  with  great  rapidity,  speech 
becomes  hasty  and  without  reflection;  this  is  very  natural,  on 
account  of  the  hurried  succession  of  thoughts.  The  latter  become 
effaced  so  easily  that  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  is  forgotten 
before  the  end  of  it  is  reached.  This  happened  even  in  such 
great  men  as  Hegel,  who  during  a  conversation  or  lecture,  fre- 
quently lost  the  thread  of  it.  Due  to  their  hastiness  it  is  only 
natural  that  the  thoughts  cannot  be  expressed  precisely  in  words, 
and  this  explains  the  often  indistinct  speech  and  expression  of 
ideas  of  many  neurasthenics  and  hysterics. 

This  is  probably  the  cause  why  there  is  a  general  inclination 
to  consider  nervous  persons,  neurasthenics  and  hysterical  women, 
as  individuals  of  a  low-grade  mentality,  which  is  surely  not 
justified,  and  cannot  be  proven  physiologically.  Very  many  of 
the  great  geniuses  were  nervous,  and  nervousness  may  also  be 
found  among  great  scientists,  as  well  as  among  inventors,  inves- 


Influence  of  Nervousness  and  Treatment.  165 

tigators,  statesmen,  diplomats,  and  financiers.  Their  mental 
superiority  just  depends  upon  the  fact  that  their  nervous  system 
and  sense  organs  have  such  a  fine  construction  that  they  react 
perceptibly  upon  very  slight  impulses.  It  seems  to  me  that  to 
call  such  nervous  systems  mediocre  is  physiologically  unjusti- 
fied. Just  on  account  of  the  particular  fineness  of  their  sense 
organs,  which  are  susceptible  to  the  most  minute  impulses,  many 
distinguished  men  were  led  to  discoveries.  When  Moebius^  very 
justly  points  out  that  nervous  individuals  often  live  long,  this, 
in  my  opinion,  is  also  dependent  upon  their  refined  organization. 
They  notice,  for  instance,  the  bad  air  in  smoky  localities  and  the 
prevailing  heat  in  them,  which  makes  their  faces  burn,  and  all 
other  injurious  conditions  in  a  much  higher  degree  than  other 
individuals;  their  fine  sense  of  smell  detects  bad  food  at  once, 
and  the  ability  to  get  prompt  warning  of  impending  injury  and 
to  quickly  avoid  it  very  easily  explains  their  longevity ;  they  also 
notice  the  slightest  changes  in  their  well-being  and  seek  medical 
advice  when  the  first  symptoms  of  a  beginning  disease  make  their 
appearaiice,  whereas  the  so-called  normal  individuals  consult  a 
physician  only  when  a  disease  is  already  fully  developed.  Owing 
to  the  acuteness  of  their  sense  organs  such  individuals,  on  the 
other  hand,  perceive  many  things  which  are  not  noticed  by 
others,  and  to  this  may  be  attributed  many  discoveries  and 
inventions.  Through  the  profuseness  of  perceptive  impulses  the 
imagination  of  such  individuals  becomes  aroused,  and  they 
acquire  a  great  store  of  original  ideas;  and  it  is,  therefore,  not 
to  be  wondered  at  that  nervous  children  often  develop  into 
geniuses,  if  they  only  receive  a  good  education,  and  the  educa- 
tion endows  them  with  the  necessary  critical  ability. 

We  must  keep  in  mind  that  in  our  sense  organs  and  in  the 
nervous  system  we  possess  very  effective  means  for  protection 
against  various  injuries.  At  any  rate,  great  sensitiveness  of 
these  organs,  combined  with  rapidity  in  conveying  impressions, 
cannot  be  considered  as  a  condition  below  par. 

2.Moebius,  Die  Anlage  zur  Mathematik,  I.  c. 


166  Human  Intelligence. 


As  an  instructive  example  of  the  resisting  power  of  many 
neurasthenics  I  would  like  to  mention  from  my  own  experience 
a  case  of  a  foreign  diabetic  aristocrat,  who  was  a  neurasthenic 
of  a  vivid,  excitable  kind.  I  have  been  treating  him  for  the  last 
fifteen  summers  for  his  diabetes,  which  he  had  inherited  and  had 
been  suffering  from  for  years  before.  He  arrived  here  for  treat- 
ment every  time  with  a  large  amount  of  sugar  in  the  urine,  and 
a  large,  swollen  liver.  Both  would  disappear  regularly  at  the 
end  of  the  season's  treatment.  Simultaneously  with  it  he  suf- 
fered in  high  degree  from  nervousness  and  insomnia.  Owing  to 
the  crippled  condition  of  his  legs  he  has  already  met  with  acci- 
dental bone  fractures  six  different  times.  After  the  last  acci- 
dent, which  happened  some  years  ago,  I  called  into  consultation 
the  late  Dr.  Hoffa,  who  at  that  time  lived  in  Carlsbad.  Every- 
body knows  the  grave  consequences  of  accidents  in  diabetes. 
Two  years  ago,  in  addition  to  all  this,  came  a  stroke.  Last  sum- 
mer I  had,  however,  the  pleasure  of  meeting  again  my  old  friend 
and  patient  in  Carlsbad.  His  condition  remained  stationary, 
always  the  same,  only  the  liver  was  somewhat  more  swollen. 
He  had  only  traces  of  acetone,  sugar  2-3  per  cent.,  which  soon 
disappeared.  As  a  very  interesting  feature  I  mention  here  that 
the  sexual  impulse  in  this  patient,  who  is  a  man  up  in  years,  was 
exceedingly  vivid,  something  which  is  rare  in  diabetics.  This 
is,  however,  more  frequent  in  neurasthenics  of  the  vivid,  excit- 
able kind,  whereas  in  the  depressed  kind  it  rarely  occurs.  In  the 
latter  there  is  often  impotence,  which  is  very  often  the  cause  of 
neurasthenia.  Generally  speaking,  changes  in  the  sexual  organs, 
particularly  disturbances  of  sexual  impulses,  are,  as  already  men- 
tioned before,  to  be  considered  among  the  most  frequent  causes 
of  nervousness,  neurasthenia  and  hysteria. 

According  to  Baldwin  there  is  often  found  in  hysteria 
microscopic  changes  in  the  ovaries  and  the  uterus.  Changes 
in  the  thyroid  also  frequently  lead  to  distinct  nervousness;  it  is 
of  the  excitable  kind  whenever  there  is  an  overactivity  of  this 
gland,  and  of  a  depressed  variety  when  there  is  an  underactivity 


Influence  of  Nervousness  and  Treatment.  167 

of  it.  That  in  Basedow's  disease  all  symptoms  of  hysteria  may 
be  present  has  already  been  mentioned  before. 

We  thus  see  that  the  development  of  neurasthenia  and  hys- 
teria may  very  frequently  be  based  upon  injurious  conditions 
originating  within  the  body  itself,  such  as  uric  acid,  intestinal 
toxins,  etc. ;  and  such  cases  are,  therefore,  known  as  endogenous, 
in  contradistinction  to  the  exogenous,  which  develop  as  result  of 
deleterious  influences  from  outside.  The  latter  frequently  are 
toxic  substances,  such  as  alcohol  or  spiritual  emotions,  difficul- 
ties and  vices  of  every-day  life,  of  the  social  position  of  the 
individual.  A  particularly  powerful  factor  which  is  also  inju- 
rious in  a  great  number  of  neurasthenics  is,  according  to  my 
experience,  fear,  anxiety,  and  doubtfulness  in  regard  to  the 
uncertainty  of  the  future.  When  a  person  is  in  fear,  his  heart 
beats  rapidly,  his  limbs  tremble,  his  pulse  becomes  flighty.  This 
indicates  most  strikingly  a  greatly  excited  condition  of  the 
nervous  system.  If  such  a  condition  in  a  higher  or  lesser  degree 
occurs  very  frequently,  maybe  daily,  as  is  the  case  in  many  occu- 
pations characterized  by  uncertainty,  with  ruin  threatening  day 
after  day,  it  is  no  wonder  if  neurasthenia  makes  its  appearance. 
And  we  actually  observe  it  most  frequently  in  all  those  callings  in 
which  the  weight  of  grave  responsibility  rests  upon  the  shoulders 
of  conscientious  men  who  do  everything  possible  to  fulfill  their 
duties,  such  as  jurists,  statesmen,  physicians,  lawyers ;  also  those 
who  are  engaged  in  all  kinds  of  financial  affairs  and  speculations, 
with  all  their  daily  excitements.  Wherever  it  is  not  known  what 
the  next  day  will  bring  and  fear  does  exist,  neurasthenia  is  the 
usual  companion.  The  origin  of  the  latter,  as  well  as  that  of 
hysteria,  may  also  be  due  to  some  psychical  experiences,  acci- 
dents, and  most  easily  to  congenital  disposition. 

To  treat  neurasthenics  and  hysterics  in  a  rational  way, 
it  is  first  of  all  necessary,  as  in  the  case  of  other  dis- 
eases, to  make  a  careful  examination  of  the  psychical  and  of  the 
physical  condition  of  the  patient,  and  to  reach  a  decision, 
whether   the   disease   is   due   to   internal   or   external    causes. 


168  Human  Intelligence. 


Sometimes  it  is  due  to  a  combination  of  both.  If  it  is  due  to 
internal  conditions,  whereby  the  disturbed  functions  of  the  Inter- 
nal secretion  glands  are  often  the  underlying  cause  of  the  dis- 
ease, then,  in  many  cases  of  neurasthenia  characterized  by 
fatigue  and  depression,  it  is  possible,  according  to  my  experi- 
ence, to  obtain  great  benefit  with  thyroid  treatment.  In  exalted 
neurasthenics  and  hysterics  this  treatment  may  be  dangerous, 
and  it  is,  therefore,  necessary,  first  of  all,  to  examine  the  pulse. 
If  the  latter  is  very  frequent  and  the  individuals  are  very  much 
excited  this  treatment  is  better  let  alone.  In  hysterical  women, 
particularly  during  climacterium,  treatment  with  ovarium  tab- 
lets may,  according  to  my  experience,  have  very  good  results  in 
many  cases.  It  is  necessary,  however,  that  such  treatment 
should  be  continued  for  several  weeks.  From  various  sources, 
as  recently,  for  instance,  by  Wilhelm  Karo^  and  Peck,  very  good 
results  have  been  reported  from  treatment  with  spermin  (Pohl). 
Whether  it  was  only  suggestive  or  not,  it  suffices  to  state  that  it 
did  help,  and  this  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  after  all  that  was 
reported  about  the  action  of  testicle  extract  by  Brown  Sequard. 
I  have  also  seen  good  results  in  many  cases  from  subcutaneous 
injections  of  spermin,  less  favorable  results  in  the  few  cases 
which  I  treated  by  internal  administration.  I  have  also  used  in 
many  cases  extract  of  bull-testicle,  and  found  a  marked  imln- 
ence  upon  the  symptoms  of  fatigue  and  the  general  condition. 

When  we  have  to  deal  with  individuals  with  greatly 
exalted  conditions  I  recommend  a  treatment  which  gives  excel- 
lent results,  even  in  the  highest  degrees  of  exaltation,  such  as 
we  find  in  mental  diseases.  I  recommend  rest  in  bed  in  a  dark 
room  with  covered  windows,  which  enables  one  to  eliminate  all 
irritations.  In  very  much  fatigued  patients  it  is  even  sufficient 
to  put  them  to  bed  with  uniform  warmth  for  several  hours 
daily.  With  such  rest  these  individuals  recuperate  very  well. 
For  less  excited  individuals  it  suffices,  after  several  hours'  work, 
to  lie  down  on  a  sofa  for  half  an  hour  or  an  hour  to  rest  the 


3  Karo,  W.,  Die  Gonorrhoe,  Berlin,  1912. 


Influence  of  Nervousness  and  Treatment.  169 

nerves  after  work.  In  a  like  manner,  for  excited  neurasthenics 
and  hysterics,  a  protracted  warm  bath,  which  acts  favorably 
even  in  mental  exaltations,  may  be  beneficial,  particularly  when 
this  is  taken  before  retiring.  The  prevention  and  treatment  of 
insomnia  (Chapter  XV)  must  form  the  main  part  of  the  treat- 
ment. Carbonic  acid  baths  may  also  be  very  beneficial.  Cold- 
water  treatment  and  sea-baths  may  alsO'  produce  improvement 
in  some  neurasthenics  with  depression,  provided  they  are  not 
overdone;  otherwise  they  do  much  harm.  Very  important 
is  plentiful  food,  to  which  Weir  Mitchell  and  others  attribute 
many  of  their  good  results.  Scanty  food,  or  purely  vegetarian, 
may  prove  very  injurious.  Tender  meat,  milk,  eggs,  cheese 
and  sufficient  vegetables,  abundant  food  in  general,  may 
be  very  useful  for  many  neurasthenics,  particularly  those  of 
tlie  depressed  kind,  and  often  also  for  hysterics.  For  many 
depressed  patients  a  sojourn  in  the  sunny  high  mountains  may 
often  do  wonders;  for  many  excitable  neurasthenics  and  hys- 
terics this  may  be  rather  detrimental,  particularly  during  the 
first  few  "days.  Of  great  importance  is  the  occupation  treat- 
ment. Often  I  have  obtained  excellent  results  by  ordering  gar- 
den laboring,  as  recently,  for  instance,  in  a  patient,  a  canonist. 
Hereby  the  demand  for  food  grows,  and  thus  a  beneficial  hunger 
which  was  lacking  for  a  long  time  manifests  itself.  This  treat- 
ment may  be  greatly  promoted  by  certain  medicaments,  such  as 
iron  and  arsenic.  Particularly  the  arsenic  has  a  strengthening, 
tonic  influence  in  these  patients.  There  scarcely  exists  a  disease 
for  which  there  are  so  many  remedies  as  for  neurasthenia  or 
hysteria,  but  nowhere  is  it  so  necessary  to  specialize  as  just  here. 
A  treatment  which  is  helpful  in  many  cases  may  be  very  harm- 
ful in  others.  It  is,  therefore,  absolutely  necessary  to  give 
individual  attention  and  treatment  to  each  patient;  the  patient 
must  be  carefully  studied,  and  his  psychical  condition  examined. 
Dubois  recommends  persuasion  and  appeasing  doubts,  and 
Freud,  psychoanalysis,  but  it  must  be  done  only  by  experienced 
men  and  without  exaggeration. 


CHAPTER   XXI. 

The  Influence  of  the  Diseases  of  the  Thyroid  Gland. 

(a)    The  Influence  of  Basedow's  Disease,  its  Prevention 
and  its  Treatment. 

Basedow's  disease  is  characterized  by  the  increased  activity 
of  the-  thyroid  gland,  which  causes  an  increase  above  normal  of 
the  processes  of  metabolism,  and  at  the  same  time  of  all  the 
other  functions  dominated  by  the  thyroid.  In  the  domain  of 
mental  activity,  of  the  processes  of  thinking,  an  abnormal 
acceleration  is  taking  place.  There  is  a  rapidity  of  thought, 
ideas  leap  ahead  of  the  words  to  express  them,  but  logical  con- 
nection is,  nevertheless,  retained.  Often  it  results  in  an  exces- 
sive volubility;  we  find  here  just  the  opposite  of  what  is 
observed  in  myxedema,  which  we  will  take  up  in  the  next  chap- 
ter. The  talkativeness  of  many  patients  with  Basedow's  dis- 
ease stands  in  direct  contrast  with  the  slow,  lagging  speech  of 
those  Sjuffering  from  myxedema. 

In  Basedow's  disease  there  is  often  found  an  abnormal 
absent-mindedness;  the  patients  are  unable  to  concentrate  their 
thoughts  on  one  point,  and  this  causes  disturbance  in  the  ability 
to  retain  anything  in  memory.  Mos,t  of  the  patients  with  Base- 
dow's disease  (we  consider  here  the  well-defined  forms  and 
not  the  transient  forms  passing  into  myxedema)  manifest  great 
excitement ;  often  all  ox  most  symptoms  of  hysteria  may  be  here 
observed,  so  that  Basedow's  disease  could  be  qualified  as  hys- 
teria with  tachycardia.  In  fact,  frequently  cases  of  Basedow's 
disease  are  taken  for  hysteria  in  instances  where,  as  often 
occurs,  the  goiter  and  the  exophthalmos  are  absent.  The  main 
symptoms,  however,  even  when  the  two  other  cardinal  symp- 
toms are  absent,  are  the  overrapid  heart-activity,  the  tachycardia, 
with  a  pulse  often  far  above  120  beats. 
(170) 


Influence  of  Basedoiv's  Disease.  171 

Often  there  may  be  present  in  Basedow's  disease  a  condi- 
tion simulating  drunkenness  without  the  patient  (we  deal  here 
mostly  with  totally  abstinent  women)  having  used  alcohol  even 
in  slightest  quantity.  This  condition — the  behavior  and  speech 
actually  remind  one  of  drunkenness — is  probably  due  to  the  toxic 
influence  of  abnormally  large  quantities  of  the  substance  secreted 
by  the  thyroid  gland.  Actual  drunkenness  produced  by  alcohol 
or  chloroform  is,  by  the  way,  probably  also  due  to  the  action 
of  these  substances  upon  the  thyroid,  causing  an  abnormally 
great  .secretion  by  it.  At  least,  this  seems  to  be  indicated  by 
my  investigations  on  chloroformed  dogs.^ 

Not  rarely  this  abnormally  exalted  condition  in  Basedow's 
disease  may  degenerate  into  mental  disease.  In  mental  disturb- 
ances induced  thereby  there  is  also  clearly  seen  symptoms  con- 
trary to  those  of  myxedema.  I  would  like  to  call  attention  here 
to  the  fact  that  mental  disturbances  which  are  due  to  myxedema 
are,  as  a  rule,  of  melancholic-depressive  kind;  whereas  those 
disturbances  which  are  due  to  Basedow's  disease  belong  to  the 
class  of  maniacal  exaltations. 

The  hysterical  and  neurasthenical  complaints  which  become 
manifest  in  Basedow's  disease,  particularly  the  insomnia  and  the 
fatigue,  have  a  very  bad  influence  upon  the  intellectual  faculties, 
and  often  cause  inability  for  calm  thinking  and  mental  work  in 
cases  where  criticism  plays  an  important  role.  In  many  such 
patients  there  is  found,  moreover,  a  very  high  grade  of  intelli- 
gence, which  is  also  contradictory  to  myxedema. 

Particularly  that  kind  of  mental  activity  in  which  imagina- 
tion participates  is  not  injured  by  the  disease;  not  rarely  it  is 
increased,  but  the  correctness  of  memory  suffers  a  certain  loss. 

According  to  observations,  made  also  by  myself,^  the 
exalted  condition  which  characterizes  Basedow's  disease  can  also 
be  produced  in  entirely  normal  individuals  by  administration  of 
large  doses  of  thyroid. 


1  Lorand,  Societe  de  Biologic,  25  Apr.,  1906.    Sur  la  Pathogenie  Narcose, 
-Lorand,  Old  Age. 


172  Human  Intelligence. 


Basedow's  disease  being  caused  by  increased  activity  of  the 
thyroid,  the  treatment  for  it  must  consist  in  reducing  that  over- 
activity. This  can  be  best  accompHshed  by  administrations  of 
serum  of  thyroidectomized  animals  (sheep),  such  as  antithy- 
roidin  of  Moebius.  Lanz  found  great  improvement  after  using 
milk  of  thyroidectomized  goats.  I  have  myself  observed  great 
improvement  in  the  symptoms  of  the  disease  after  using  anti- 
thyroidin.  Last  summer  I  had  an  opportunity  to  treat  with  this 
remedy  a  Cuban  living  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States 
of  America ;  he  was  26  years  of  age,  father  of  two  children,  and 
was  in  the  most  acute  stage  of  the  disease  with  toxic  symptoms ; 
he  had  a  pulse  of  120-140,  a  large  goiter  and  exophthalmos. 
After  the  treatment  his  pulse  diminished,  sleep  improved, 
excitement  decreased,  overhasty  thinking  became,  it  seemed  to 
me,  somewhat  quieter.  In  view  of  the  large  goiter,  however,  I 
considered  it  necessary  to  recommend  to  him  an  operation  which 
I  think  is,  in  such  cases,  more  appropriate  than  the  antithyroidin, 
although  the  latter  should  be  first  tried.  If,  however,  this  does 
not  succeed  in  diminishing  the  goiter  and  substantially  improving 
the  toxic  symptoms,  it  is  then  best  to  perform  an  operation  for 
partial  removal  of  the  thyroid.  At  present  this  operation  can 
be  performed  without  danger  by  skillful  thyroid  operators,  with- 
out general  narcosis,  using  local  anesthetics.  In  cases  of  small 
goiters,  antithyroidin,  together  with  hygienic  mode  of  life,  may 
act  very  well.  As  in  hysteria  a.nd  neurasthenia,  here  also,  accord- 
ing to  many  authorities,  living  in  high  altitudes  with  abundant 
nourishment,  v/ith  food  containing  large  quantities  of  albumin, 
may  be  very  beneficial.  But  milk  should,  according  to  my  ob- 
servations, be  limited  in  its  use,  because  milk  contains  thyroid 
secretions,  and  may  often  increase  the  activity  of  that  gland. 
Hector  Mackenzie  also,  on  account  of  this  fact,  recommends 
that  patients  with  Basedow's  disease  should  abstain  from  the  use 
of  milk. 

I  may  also  mention  that  favorable  results  have  also  repeat- 
edly been  reported  from  treatment  with  Rontgen  rays. 


Influence  of  Myxedema.  173 

Very  often  Basedow's  disease  may  be  caused  by  changes 
in  the  ovaries;  therefore  investigations  should  also  be  made  in 
that  direction.  If  such  symptoms  should  be  found, — chlorosis 
very  frequently  occurs  in  such  conditions, — sometimes  very 
much  benefit  can  be  obtained  by  expert  treatment  with  ovarian 
extract,  particularly  in  young  girls  and  married  women.  Not 
rarely  Basedow's  disease  may  be  prevented  in  this  way.  In 
view  of  the  fact  that  this  disease  very  frequently  develops  in 
congenitally  predisposed  persons,  particularly  in  daughters  of 
those  suffering  from  Basedow's  disease,  it  is  advisable  to  employ 
preventive  measures  in  such  individuals  at  the  very  first  appear- 
ance of  slight  swelling  of  the  thyroid,  which,  according  to  my 
observations,  occurs  very  frequently,  and  is  a  sign  of  congenital 
weakness  of  the  ovaries.  The  advice  which  should  be  given  in 
such  cases  is :  nourishing  foods  containing  plenty  of  iron,  such 
as  eggs,  spinach,  administration  of  iron  and  arsenic  in  form  of 
medicaments,  and  mineral  waters,  together  with  ovarium  tab- 
lets. I  consider  it  possible,  in  this  way,  to  actually  prevent 
Basedow's  disease. 

In  many  cases  of  Basedow's  disease  I  have  seen  very  good 
effect  from  a  Carlsbad  treatment,  as  I  reported  at  the  Interna- 
tional Congress  in  Lisbon.  The  effect  may  probably  be  ex- 
plained on  the  same  principles  as  in  diabetes,  which  is  similar 
in  its  initial  stages  to  Basedow's  disease.  The  effect  of  the 
waters  concerns  only  the  improvement  of  the  general  conditions. 
After  a  five  weeks'  course  of  treatment  there  was  in  one  case 
no  change  in  the  goiter  at  all.  The  three  others  which  I 
treated  were  cases  without  goiter. 

(h)   The  Influence  of  Myxedema  and  Correlated  Conditions 
of  Weakness  of  the  Thyroid  and  Their  Treatment. 

Whereas,  in  the  condition  of  overactivity  of  the  thyroid,  in 
Basedow's  disease,  considered  in  the  preceding  pages,  we 
observed  a  great  mental  exaltation  with  overhastening  of  the 


174  Human  Intelligence, 


thoughts  and  words,  we  see  in  myxedema,  in  which  an  under- 
activity of  the  thyroid  exists,  exactly  the  opposite.  Here  we 
see,  as  a  rule,  rather  a  scarcity  of  words;  the  patients  (they  are 
mostly  women)  who  manifest  the  disease  may  sit  around  for 
hours  without  speaking  at  all.  If  they  are  asked  anything,  an 
answer  is  given  after  long  hesitation  and  reflection.  Sometimes 
it  may  take  quite  a  while  before  the  question  is  even  understood. 
The  answer,  when  given,  shows  that  the  patients  are  well 
informed;  their  thinking  power  is  not  weakened,  but  the  pro- 
cess of  thinking,  as  a  whole,  is  very  much  slower.  It  takes 
them  a  long  time  to  recollect  anything,  because  their  memory 
is  deficient.  It  is  a  matter  of  disturbance  of  the  ability  to 
notice  occurrences  with  no  desire  to  think.  The  patients  show 
absolutely  no  interest  in  what  is  going  on  around  them ;  they 
are  entirely  unconcerned,  and  this  is  more  conspicuous  in  individ- 
uals who  have  previously  been  very  active.  This  state  of  uncon- 
cernedness  leads  to  loss  of  interest  in  business  efficiency,  and 
other  abilities  become  reduced,  as,  for  instance,  they  have 
marked  difficulties  in  accounting,  and  figuring  mentally  becomes 
really  impossible.  All  that,  particularly  the  weakness  of  mem- 
ory, brings  the  patient  to  the  physician  almost  before  any  other 
external  symptoms  become  manifest.  The  latter  may  often  be 
entirely  absent  or  very  little  noticed,  and  I  would  like  to  point 
out  here  again  that  there  are  many  cases  of  myxedema  in  which 
no  myxedematous  swellings  on  the  skin  are  visible  at  all. 

The  symptoms  just  mentioned  may  be  more  or  less  pro- 
nounced, depending  on  the  grade  of  the  disturbance  of  the  thy- 
roid activity.  This  is'  also  seen  in  regard  to  memory ;  no  mat- 
ter how  deficient  the  latter  is  respecting  recent  occurrences,  there 
always  exists  a  recollection  of  things  which  have  happened  dur- 
ing earlier  years  of  life.  Everything  which  the  patient  has 
acquired  at  a  time  when  the  thyroid  had  functionated  normally 
he  remembers  well,  or  fairly  well,  and  this  indicates  that  the 
thyroid,  as  has  already  been  mentioned  in  other  parts  of  this 
book,  materially  influences  the  function  of  memory. 


Influence  of  Myxedema.  175 

The  difficulty  which  here  exists  is  to  make  new  acquisition 
of  knowledge.  The  patient  is  not  able  to  take  in  anything  new, 
and  this  explains  his  attempt  to  resist  all  innovations.  This 
conservativeness  is  for  him  a  bitter  necessity.  We  observe  this 
often  in  old  people,  which  is  probably  due  to  the  degeneration 
of  the  thyroid  frequently  occurring  in  old  age. 

Suspiciousness,  which  often  characterizes  such  patients, 
may  also  have  something  to  do  with  the  suggestions  made  above. 
According  to  the  reports  of  the  English  committee/  investigating 
myxedema,  as  well  as  of  various  other  authorities,  prejudiced 
suspicion  is  a  typical  symptom  of  myxedematous  conditions,  as 
also  are  involuntary  thoughts  and  acts.  Real  mental  disturb- 
ances, with  melancholic  conditions,  are  not  at  all  rare  in 
myxedema.  Even  in  the  beginning  of  the  disease  hallucinations 
occur,  as  was  pointed  out  by  George  Murray,  of  New  Castle. 
When  the  patients  are  sitting  quietly  in  a  room,  and  still  more 
often  before  they  fall  asleep,  they  often  see  such  animals  as 
rats  and  mice  running  through  the  room.  Hertoghe  also  made 
the  same  observations,  and  he  also  mentioned  that  the  patients 
hate  very  much  to  speak  about  them.  This  is  probably  because 
they  do  not  want  to  be  suspected  of  drinking  too  much.  Accord- 
ing to  my  observations,  such  patients  are  able  to  consume  large 
quantities  of  liquor  without  becoming  drunk,  and  this  relates  to 
very  delicate  women  who  never  did  drink  at  all,  but  are  feeling 
a  desire  for  it  in  course  of  the  disease.  I  saw  in  Holland  a  very 
delicate  old  maid,  82  years  of  age,  who,  after  drinking  almost 
a  whole  bottle  of  red  wine,  presented  no  particular  sign  of  in- 
toxication. She  had  all  signs  of  the  cachectic  form  of  myxedema 
with  great  emaciation  and  deathly  pale  face.  This  deathly  pale 
face,  in  color  like  the  abdomen  (white)  of  a  fish,  I  have 
often  seen  as  typical  in  myxedema;  also  in  cretinism  and  acro- 
megalia, and  also  as  a  symptom  of  congenital  weakness  of  the 
testicle. 

This  resistance  of  patients  with  myxedema  toward  the 
effect  of  alcohol  I  have  mentioned  before  in  my  book  on  "Old 


176  Human  Intelligence. 


Age,"  and  in  the  chapter  on  prevention  of  drunkenness  I 
expressed  the  opinion  that  it  is,  in  all  probability,  caused  by  an 
underactivity  of  the  thyroid.  These  patients  have  actually  a 
desire  for  something  which  stimulates  their  nerves. 

Besides  cases  of  fully  developed  myxedema,  in  which  large 
portions  of  the  thyroid  are  degenerated,  there  occur  also  cases 
with  only  partial  changes  in  the  gland.  Owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  gland  is  made  up  of  innumerable  follicles,  it  is  easy  to 
understand  that  the  diseased  process  would  destroy  them  only 
gradually  or  may  attack  only  a  part  of  them,  while  the  rest  will 
still  be  able  to  perform  their  functions,  and  the  result  is  a 
diminution  in  the  sum-total  of  its  action.  A  similar  condition 
is  undoubtedly  the  case  with  other  internal  secretion  glands,  and 
this  explains  the  conditions  known  as  "formes  frustes." 

This  myxedema  fruste,  or  the  chronic  benign  hyperthy- 
roiditis  of  Hertaghe,  and  all  other  more  or  less  well-defined  cases 
of  thyroid  weakness  present  the  above-described  typical  symp- 
toms of  the  fully  developed  myxedema  in  numerous  variations. 
They  occur  everywhere  where  the  thyroid  becomes  affected  by 
injurious  influences,  as,  for  instance,  after  infectious  disease,  in 
pregnancy,  in  diseases  of  female  reproductive  organs,  during  the 
menopause,  after  the  use  of  alcohol,  and  various  other  chronic 
intoxications,  etc.  The  most  frequent  form  of  such  a  weakness 
of  the  thyroid  is  obesity,  when  it  is  not  produced  by  overfeed- 
ing. In  the  latter  we  find  a  weakness  of  the  mental  faculties,  a 
disturbed  memory.  One  of  my  patients,  a  Belgian  lady,  35 
years  of  age,  who  suffered  from  an  endogenous  obesity  due  to 
thyroid  weakness,  could  not  memorize  anything,  and  complained 
of  having  a  "tete  de  linotte."  A  similar  weakness  of  mental 
faculties  we  also  find  in  old  people,  which  may  also  be  undoubt- 
edly attributable  to  degenerations  of  the  thyroid.  We  observe^ 
the  whole  complex  symptoms  of  myxedema  in  old  age,  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  all  symptoms  of  a  premature  senility  are  mani- 
fested in  myxedema  in  its  fully  developed  form  as  well  as  in  its 


3  Lorand,  Old  Age. 


Influence  of  Myxedema.  \77 

imperfect  forms,  very  often  in  individuals  below  the  age  of  40. 
The  hair  becomes  gray  and  falls  out;  we  observe  falling  out  of 
the  teeth  and  other  disturbances  of  nutrition  in  the  skin  and  bony 
system,  and  disturbance  of  general  metabolism  similar  to  that 
which  occurs  in  old  age.  Such  a  condition  is  also  noticed  after 
causes  injurious  to  the  thyroid,  mentioned  above;  the  operation 
of  repeated  pregnancies  and  changes  in  the  sexual  organs,  and 
mental  emotions;  the  latter  ranking  first. 

When  we,  as  Hertoghe  has  already  observed,  notice  very 
frequently  in  the  children  of  such  individuals  symptoms  of  con- 
genital myxedema  in  all  of  its  more  or  less  defined  forms,  this 
only  indicates  the  hereditary  transmission  of  changes  in  the 
ductless  glands  such  as  I  have  repeatedly  mentioned.  Depend- 
ing on  the  grade  of  myxedema  which  such  children  show, 
whether  it  is  a  perfect  congenital  myxedema  or  only  an  infan- 
tile tj^pe  (Lorraine)  or  only  a  weakness  of  the  thyroid,  the  dis- 
turbances in  the  development  of  mental  faculties  which  they 
exhibit  will  vary  accordingly.  In  children  with  fully  developed 
myxedema,  with  their  large  abdomen,  open  mouth,  tongue  hang- 
ing forward,  staring  expression,  awkward  walk,  we  find,  as  a 
rule,  a  more  or  less  animal-like  mental  condition,  sometimes 
below  that  of  the  dog.  Such  individuals  may  grow  up  tO'  full 
idiots,  and  I  have  seen  many  of  them  at  the  insane  asylum  in 
Daldorf.  These  are  generally  called  sporadic  forms  of  cretin- 
ism, but  it  is  a  condition  similar  to  the  congenital  myxedema 
caused  by  absent  or  undeveloped  thyroid. 

Many  such  cases  are  registered,  as  I  have  seen  in  many 
insane  asylums,  under  the  name  of  idiots,  only  because  they  do 
not  show  the  myxedematous  changes  in  the  skin  covering  of  the 
body.  And,  nevertheless,  everybody  who  has  handled  myxe- 
dema cases  for  any  length  of  time  and  has  seen  many  such 
patients,  knows  that  a  considerable  number  of  such  cases  mani- 
fest all  the  symptoms  of  myxedema  with  the  exceptions  of  just 
those  seen  in  the  skin.  These  may  be  absent  in  the  most  grave 
cachectic  cases,  and  may  be  present  frequently  in  the  milder  cases. 

12 


178  Human  Intelligence. 


The  name  of  the  disease  itself  was  unhappily  selected,  because 
it  is  given  on  account  of  one  symptom,  and  that  is  the  one 
which  is  not  constant. 

The  condition  of  the  skin  is  undoubtedly  often  present 
without  it  being  recognized.  We  must  not  always  expect,  as 
many  colleagues  do,  a  puffed-up,  edematous  condition  of  skin, 
particularly  of  the  hands.  Often  when  the  myxedema  has  con- 
siderably advanced  there  is  only  a  certain  blending  of  the  out- 
lines of  the  face  with  beginning  pockets  under  the  eyes. 

The  sexual  organs  in  children  suffering  from  myxedema, 
even  in  the  not  fully  developed  forms,  are  more  or  less 
retarded  in  their  development.  Very  often  the  testicles  have 
not  descended  at  all,  or  they  are  found  to  be  rudimentary, 
hardly  larger  than  a  chestnut,  sometimes  developed  only  on  one 
side.  In  one  grown-up  idiot  at  the  Daldorf  Institute  I  found, 
on  the  left  side  only,  a  small  testicle,  the  right  one  was  high  up 
and  very  small;  the  thyroid  could  not  be  felt.  There  was  a 
great  obesity  present  on  a  myxedematous  base.  The  sexual 
organs  in  idiots  are  often  found  better  developed  than  in  patients 
with  myxedema  and  in  cretins,  which  explains  their  erotic  acts. 

In  cretins,  also,  neither  the  thyroid  nor  the  sexual  organs 
are  well  developed.  In  less  grave  forms  they  may  develop 
somewhat  more;  then  we  find  the  secondary  sexual  characters, 
as,  for  instance,  the  beard,  more  pronounced.  Cretins  stand 
somewhat  higher  in  the  scale  of  mentality  than  idiots  and  the 
grave  cases  of  congenital  myxedema,  except  in  the  more  severe 
cases  of  cretinism,  when  they  resemble  the  idiots. 

Cretinism  occurs  endemically  in  certain  locations  where  it 
is  caused  by  climatic  and  geologic  influences.  According  to  my 
opinion  it  is  caused  by  three  factors : — - 

1.  Absence  of  sunshine. 

2.  Presence  of  substances  injurious  to  the  thyroid  in  the 
drinking-water. 

3.  Insufficiency  of  calcium  in  the  foodstuffs  and  in  the 
drinking-water. 


Influence  of  Myxedema.  179 

The  reason  that  there  are  so  many  cases  of  cretinism  in  the 
Aosta  Valley  is  probably  because  here  are  combined  all  three, 
or,  at  least,  two  main  factors :  absence  of  sunshine  and  deficiency 
of  calcium  in  the  drinking-water. 

The  gravest  cases  of  myxedema,  and  also  of  cretinism,  are 
hopeless  idiots;  in  the  lighter  cases  there  is  an  educational  pos- 
sibility, and  we  will  consider  them  later.  We  want  tO'  mention 
here  that  they  all  show  a  more  or  less  certain  difficulty  in  per- 
ception ;  they  are  very  narrow-minded,  and  able  to  imitate  when 
anything  is  shown  to  them,  but  their  own  initiative  is  null. 
They  have  only  the  slightest  remembrance  of  what  they  most  fre- 
quently see  or  hear,  and  never  go  beyond  this  point;  and  thus 
have  received  the  name  cretin,  which  indicates  that  such  an  in- 
dividual lacks  any  kind  of  higher  perceptive  power.  Some  cretins 
are  well  fitted  to  do  various  kinds  of  routine  manual  labor.  Con- 
versation with  cretins  may  be  carried  on  only  about  most  simple 
things;  they  understand  everything  with  difficulty,  but  if  they 
once  understand  a  thing  well,  they  retain  it  in  memory,  some- 
times for  a  very  long  period. 

The  deficient  mental  development  of  all  children  suffering 
from  congenital  weakness  of  the  thyroid,  from  myxedema  and 
cretinism,  is  mostly  due  to  the  poor  condition  of  their  organs 
of  sense,  which  are  frequently  defective;  deaf -mutism  often 
occurs  among  them.  In  cases  of  thyroid  weakness,  adenoid 
vegetations  are  quite  common.  These  are  the  cause  of  disturb- 
ances in  the  brain-circulation,  and  also  of  great  absent-minded- 
ness and  inattentiveness.  Many  cretins  have  deficient  hearing, 
and  the  sight  is  also  apt  to  be  weak,  while  disturbances  of 
speech  are  also  often  found. 

Fortunately  we  possess  a  remedy  to  improve  the  mental 
activity  of  individuals  suffering  from  the  various  forms  of  thy- 
roid weakness,  namely,  by  administration  of  thyroid  gland.  The 
sooner  we  begin  with  it  the  better  are  the  prospects.  If  it  is 
myxedema  we  must  begin  the  treatment  at  once,  as  soon  as  the 
diagnosis  is  made.    If  we  allow  the  trouble  to  get  headway  great 


180  Human  Intelligence. 


results  cannot  be  expected.  The  grave  cases,  in  which  the  thy- 
roid is  already  entirely  degenerated,  can  hardly  be  influenced, 
and  the  treatment  in  such  cases  cannot  prevent  the  deadly  end, 
having  been  begun  too  late. 

It  is  naturally  impossible  to  hope  for  anything  when  the 
brain-cortex  has  undergone  wide  and  irreparable  changes.  As 
soon  as  the  thyroid  is  absent  or  is  entirely  inactive,  toxic  sub- 
stances, to  the  destruction  of  which  the  thyroid  otherwise  con- 
tributes, exercise  their  injurious  influence  upon  the  brain-cortex, 
and  if  such  a  condition  continues  for  years,  very  grave  changes 
in  it  would  take  place.  Of  what  benefit  can  a  thyroid  treatment 
be  when  the  convolutions  of  the  brain  are  atrophied,  and  those 
parts  which  are  the  seat  of  most  important  mental  functions  are 
destroyed?  The  thyroid  treatment  should  be  applied  to  pro- 
mote the  function  of  the  remaining  or  undeveloped  parts,  and 
this  should  begin  at  once  with  the  infant  at  the  breast,  by  admin- 
istration of  thyroid  to  the  mother,  and,  possibly,  iodine  in  the 
appropriate  case.  To  proceed  in  a  radical  way,  it  should  be 
begun  during  the  mother's  pregnancy,  as  soon  as  a  condition 
of  thyroid  weakness  has  been  ascertained.  In  this  way  it  would 
probably  be  possible  to  even  prevent  infantile  myxedema  and 
cretinism.  Such  a  procedure  would,  at  any  rate,  be  appropriate 
in  case  of  mothers  who  have  already  given  birth  to  a  myxedema- 
tous or  cretinous  child.  W^hile  the  positive  conclusion  is  not 
justified,  that  all  her  children  would  be  the  same,  this  is,  how- 
ever, as  a  rule,  the  case  in  those  localities  where  cretinism  occurs 
endemically.  Women  suffering  from  myxedema,  as  a  rule,  do 
not  have  children;  on  the  other  hand,  women  having  a  weak 
thyroid  and  suffering  from  a  benign  chronic  hypothyroiditis  may 
have  children,  although  sterility  not  rarely  occurs  among  them, 
or  they  have  difficulty  in  childbirth,  and  may  also  have  trouble 
during  pregnancy.  According  to  my  experience  sterility  in 
women  is  very  often  caused  by  weakness  of  thyroid  associated 
with  weakness  of  the  ovaries,  which  is  also  proved  by  a  number 
of  good  results  which  I  have  had  through  combined  treatment 


Influence  of  Goiter.  181 


with  thyroid  and  ovaries.  This  treatment  may  also  show  its 
benefits  in  overcoming  the  sexual  coldness  which  is  so  frequent 
among  women  with  deficient  thyroid.  At  any  rate,  such  com- 
bined treatment  may  have  a  favorable  influence  upon  the  physical 
as  well  as  mental  condition  in  the  offspring  of  Vv'omen  suffering 
from  weakness  of  the  thyroid  and  ovaries. 

It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  treat  the  mother,  the  nursing 
infant  and  the  growing  child,  and  the  treatment  should  be  con- 
tinued in  the  more  slight  cases  until  puberty,  which  in  this 
instance  sets  in  much  earlier;  in  the  more  grave  cases  treatment 
should  be  continued  throughout  life.  Of  course,  in  a  continuous 
treatment  the  doses  should  not  be  large.  In  children  it  should 
begin  with  half  of  a  tablet,  later  one  or  two  tablets  daily,  depend- 
ing on  the  constitution  of  the  child. 

If  treatment  is  begun  when  the  children  are  older,  it  is 
necessary  to  give  somewhat  larger  doses,  but  more  than  two 
tablets  daily  will  hardly  be  necessary.  If  started  during  the 
years  after  puberty  the  good  results  will  be  less  apparent,  but 
will  be  best  if  started  in  early  childhood.  Wagner  von  Jaueregg,^ 
who  has  treated  a  large  number  of  cretinous  children,  has,  how- 
ever, obtained  good  results  even  after  the  age  of  20. 

Often  very  surprising  improvement  may  be  seen  in  such 
children  in  regard  to  mental  faculties;  perception  and  interest 
for  work  grow,  and  the  formerly  absent-minded  and  lazy 
children  become  better  pupils.  We  will  take  up  the  subject  more 
fully  in  other  parts  of  the  book,  and  will  consider  more  in  detail 
the  course  of  thyroid  treatment. 

(c)    Influence  of  Goiter  upon  Mental  Faculties  and  Its 
Treatment. 

As  soon  as  changes  become  manifest  in  the  thyroid  gland, 
changes  may  also  be  expected  to  be  found  in  regard  to  men- 
tality, due  to  the  interrelations  which  exist  between  the  two. 


4  Wagner  v.  Jaueregg,  in  Handbuch  der  Psychiatric,  Berlin,  1913. 


182  Human  Intelligence. 

And  we  actually  notice  a  more  or  less  distinct  influence  upon 
the  mental  faculties,  the  degree  of  which  depends  upon  the 
gravity  of  the  disease  of  the  thyroid.  This  can  be  seen  in  the 
case  of  goiter,  the  character  of  which  will  be  found  reflected 
upon  the  intellect.  If  the  goiter  consists  of  connective  tissue, 
which  can  be  recognized  by  its  toughness,  the  important  trans- 
formations in  the  tissues  have  already  taken  place,  and  the 
larger  the  goiter  is,  the  larger  the  area  of  the  gland  that  is 
involved.  If  the  degeneration  is  more  diffusely  spread  we  may 
also  predict  a  reduction  in  the  mental  faculties.  We,  therefore, 
find  such  goiters  frequently  in  cretins;  often  we  find  colloid 
degenerated  cysts  in  them;  sometimes  they  are  very  large,  other 
times  they  may  be  of  small  dimensions.  In  some  locations,  par- 
ticularly in  the  valleys  with  scarcity  of  sunshine,  for  instance, 
in  Switzerland,  in  Steiermark,  in  the  Tyrol,  and  in  the  upper 
parts  of  Italy,  goiter  is  always  found.  Although  not  every 
individual  having  goiter  is  a  cretin,  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
dwarf  growth  is,  as  a  rule,  found  in  cretinism,  it  follows  that 
deep  destruction  has  taken  place  in  the  thyroid,  or  that  this 
gland  has  been  congenitally  undeveloped;  other  injurious  causes 
may,  of  course,  also  have  contributed  to  it. 

Such  an  injurious  cause  is  positively  found  in  the  drinking- 
water,  because  we  know  that  in  localities  where  goiter  is  ende- 
mic, immigrants  from  other  districts  also  have  goiter,  and  the 
domestic  animals  (dogs)  also  suffer  from  it.  This  becomes 
particularly  noticeable  in  persons  coming  from  locations  where 
goiter  is  unknown.  I  will  relate  a  striking  example  from  my 
own  experience.  Some  years  ago  there  came  to  Carlsbad  for 
treatment  one  of  the  great  manufacturers  from  Malaga,  with 
his  family  of  eight  members.  Among  them  were  three  boys, 
whom  I  treated  for  three  summers.  They  spent  their  winters 
and  springs  in  Lenzburg,  Switzerland,  and  all  three  came  to  me, 
to  my  surprise,  with  large  goiters,  whereas  they  formerly  had 
not  the  slightest  indication  of  it.  In  southern  Andalusia  and 
in  the  region  of  Malaga  I  have  never  seen  any  goiters.    . 


Influence  of  Goiter.  183 


Furthermore,  we  know  from  the  investigations  of  Birchers 
that  drinking-water  in  those  locaHties  contains  a  substance  which 
is  injurious  to  the  thyroid,  but  that  the  water  may  be  made 
harmless  by  boihng. 

Besides  the  drinking-water  there  are  other  factors;  for 
instance,  insufficient  sunshine.  Sunshine  is,  as  already  men- 
tioned in  other  parts  of  the  book,  an  energetic  promoter  of  thy- 
roid activity.  I  want  to  mention  again  that,  at  Chamounix, 
goiter  occurs  only  in  the  shady  side  of  the  valley,  and  that  in 
sunny  lands  and  localities  goiter  does  not  occur.  I  have  never 
seen  such  during  my  travels  in  Arizona,  California,  Mexico, 
Colorado,  Florida,  etc.  To  the  two  factors  already  mentioned 
a  third  must  be  added,  and  that  is  calcium  deficiency  in  the  soil 
and  in  the  body. 

All  these  are  only  external,  exogenous  causations  of  the 
goiter.  We  distinguish,  however,  another,  the  endogenous  form, 
which  is  caused  by  injurious  substances  within  the  body  itself. 
Endogenous  goiter  is  very  often  caused  by  diseased  ovaries,  and 
this  confirms  the  law  which  I  have  promulgated  in  my  previous 
writings,  namely,  that  changes  in  one  ductless  gland  cause 
changes  also  in  the  others;  in  this  case  of  the  thyroid.  So  we 
also  see  the  formation  of  a  goiter  in  anemic  young  girls  and 
women.  Such  endogenous  causes  undoubtedly  produce  also 
goiter  in  Basedow's  disease.  Often,  if  not  always,  it  is  pro- 
duced by  toxic  substances  originating  within  the  body,  but  some- 
times also  it  is  produced  artificially;  even  we  may  possibly  say 
by  carelessly  rubbing  the  neck,  or  by  taking  potassium  iodide 
internally  by  individuals  who  are  predisposed  to  Basedow's  dis- 
ease. This  goiter  is,  however,  distinctly  different  from  the 
goiter  in  cretins.  Because  it  consists  only  of  an  enlargement  of 
the  secreting  tissue,  this  goiter  is,  at  least  in  the  beginning,  more 
or  less  soft  and  active,  while  the  other  is,  as  a  rule,  hard  and 
inactive;  only  after  Basedow's  disease  has  lasted  for  years  the 
goiter  may  become  hard.  Then,  however,  the  volcano  became 
extinguished  and  a  transition  to  myxedema  has  taken  place. 


184  Human  Intelligence. 


Goiters  which  originated  during  pregnancy  and  delivery  may 
also,  after  awhile,  become  of  hard  consistency. 

With  the  external  bodily  dijfferences  in  the  two  different 
kinds  of  goiter — the  exogenous,  rather  hard,  fibrous,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  endogenous,  rather  soft,  glandular,  on  the  other — 
correspond  also  the  differences  of  the  intellect.  In  the  first  case 
there  is  a  rather  torpid  condition,  with  certain  limitations  in  the 
mental  faculties,  approaching  more  to  depression;  in  the  second 
case  there  is  no  reduction  of  the  intellect;  sometimes  even  very 
good  mental  disposition,  but,  frequently,  also  a  morbid  disturb- 
ance, bordering  on  maniacal  excitation,  and  exceedingly  often 
hysterical  and  neurasthenic  conditions. 

In  localities  where  large  goiters  occur,  and  in  individuals 
with  large,  hard  goiters  in  general,  which  I  have  examined — 
and  it  is  not  a  few — I  have  observed  surprisingly  often  a  more 
or  less  distinct  mental  torpidity.  They  were,  as  a  rule,  quiet 
individuals,  following  their  occupations  always  in  the  same  old 
fashion;  they  could  talk  quite  intelligently,  could  keep  up  a  con- 
versation about  the  vital  questions  of  the  day,  and  expressed 
intelligent  opinions,  but  in  answering  difficult  questions  they 
were  at  a  loss..  They  are  phlegmatic ;  nervous  excitement,  except 
in  justified  serious  occasions,  is  a  very  rare  occurrence.  Never 
have  I  -seen  one  who  had  distinguished  himself  mentally.  The 
most  extreme  type  of  this  narrow  mentality  we  find  in  cretinism, 
where  the  thyroid  is  changed  in  the  greatest  degree. 

It  is  interesting  that  the  three  children  mentioned  above 
have  also  not  been  so  clever  and  bright  as  they  had  been  before. 
One  of  them,  previously  a  very  bright  boy,  seemed  to  me  to 
be  sleepy,  and  the  other  two  have  also  not  shown  the  mental 
vivacity  of  previous  years.  As  an  illustration  of  the  influence 
of  goiter  in  the  dog  I  might  mention  that  in  the  house  in  Carls- 
bad, where  I  formerly  lived,  there  was  a  black  rat-catching  dog 
with  a  large  goiter  who  was,  therefore,  called  by  the  neighbors 
"Steyrer."  He  stood  around  sleepy  all  day  long,  and  I  cannot 
recollect  that  this  rat-catcher  had  caught  a  single  rat  during 


Influence  of  Goiter.  -  185 


many  years,  notwithstanding  that  the  latter  emerged  not  rarely 
from  the  sewer,  and  wandered  into  the  yard. 

Before  beginning  the  treatment  of  a  goiter,  it  is  necessary, 
by  examining  the  neck,  to  ascertain  its  nature,  whether  it  is  a 
hard,  fibrous  one,  or  of  a  soft,  glandular  variety.  Of  course, 
the  examination  of  an  enlarged  thyroid  on  the  living  is  not  an 
easy  matter.  This  statement  I  am  justified  in  making  after 
sixteen  years'  continuous  study  of  anatomical  and  physiological 
conditions  of  the  thyroid,  in  health  and  disease.  Sometimes  the 
thyroid,  in  living  individuals,  is  found  apparently  very  little 
enlarged,  and  at  the  post-mortem  section  a  voluminous  thyroid 
is  found,  which  was  hidden  away  under  the  sternum.  Often  one 
sees  externally  only  a  small  goiter,  whereas  on  the  inside  it 
has  already  caused  compression  of  the  windpipe,  with  distinct 
obstructions  in  the  respiration.  On  the  other  hand,  an  enlarge- 
ment of  the  thyroid  may  already  be  assumed  when  its  contours 
are  already  distinctly  seen  externally,  particularly  if  this  occurs 
in  men.  In  women  this  enlargement  is  often  distinctly  seen  in 
the  middle  lobe;  in  men  such  indications  are,  as  a  rule,  absent. 
If  the  examination  is  made  while  the  head  is  bent  forward  the 
contours  may  be  felt  inost  distinctly.  If  the  tissue  is  found  to 
be  very  hard,  which  generally  indicates  connective  tissue,  then 
a  treatment  with  iodine  and  thyroid  is  to  be  recommended.  The 
iodine  may  also  be  used  externally  in  form  of  an  ointment.  If 
the  tissue  is  soft,  either  voluminous  or  of  a  small  size,  a  similar 
treatment  may  be  tried  in  case  of  young  girls  or  women  suffer- 
ing from  anemia  and  weakness  of  the  ovaries.  It  is  necessary, 
however,  to  find  out  whether  there  is  hereditary  Basedow's  dis- 
ease in  the  family.  In  case  of  a  pulsating  goiter  or  an  existing 
exophthalmos  such  treatment  would  be  criminally  careless.  At 
any  rate,  except  in  cretinous  goiter,  we  must  always  examine 
the  pulse  before  treatment,  because  a  thyroid  and  iodine  treat- 
ment should  never  be  instituted  in  case  of  a  rapid  pulse^ — say, 
more  than  90  beats  per  minute.  In  such  cases  ''hands  off," 
because  we  have  to  deal  with  overactivity  of  the  thyroid. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

Influence  of  Epilepsy  and  Its  Treatment  According 
TO  Modern  Principles. 

Epilepsy  does  not,  in  all  cases,  have  a  bad  influence  upon 
the  mental  faculties.  This  may  be  concluded  from  the  fact  that 
such  men  of  genius  as  Julius  Csesar  and  Napoleon  were  afflicted 
with  this  disease.  If,  however,  we  leave  out  of  consideration 
these  exceptional  cases,  we  find  that  in  general  one  of  the  fea- 
tures of  this  disease  is  a  more  or  less  pronounced  reduction  of 
the  mental  faculties.  Epileptics  are  very  often  dull  mentally; 
have  difficulty  in  understanding  things ;  have  a  bad  memory,  and 
when  the  tell  anything,  they  do  it  in  a  circumlocutory  way.  Not 
being  able  to  distinguish  between  essential  things  and  non-essen- 
tial, they  relate  a  great  deal  about  unimportant  features,  and  the 
important  ones  they  mention  only  in  a  few  words.  Answers  are 
given  very  slowly;  expressions  are  awkward  and  faulty.  Their 
circle  of  ideas  is  concentrated  around  the  nearest  concrete  sub- 
ject; their  ideas  are  very  limited,  and  abstract  thought  is  very 
dif^cult;  judgment  of  any  kind  is  arduous,  and  very  often  it  is 
wrong.  It  is  very  laborious  for  them  to  think,  particularly  to 
calculate,  and  often  they  miscalculate  to  their  own  disadvantage. 
Weakness  of  memory  does  them,  very  often,  much  harm.  Some 
epileptics  very  often  have  conditions  of  confusion,  of  dreaming, 
of  uncertainty  in  which  they  actually  perform  deeds  uncon- 
sciously; they  may  even  undertake  journeys,  as  in  the  celebrated 
case  of  Legrand  de  Sauly,  a  merchant,  who,  being  in  such  a  con- 
dition, undertook  a  journey  to  Bombay,  and  only  upon  arrival 
there  woke  up  from  his  dream.  During  such  states  they  are 
liable  to,  perform  the  most  curious  deeds,  even  crimes.  One  of 
Kraepelin's  patients,  in  his  presence,  climbed  up  on  the  lightning 
rod,  two  stories  high,  to  the  roof  of  the  house  and  came  down 
again,  without  being  able  to  remember  anything  about  it.  It 
(186) 


Influence  of  Epilepsy. .  187 

often  happens  that  such  individuals  stop  in  the  midst  of  talking, 
do  not  speak  a  word  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  return  to  their 
conversation.  In  such  a  case  I  was  consulted  during  the  sum- 
mer of  191 1  by  a  Protestant  minister,  to  whom  it  frequently 
happened  that  he  would  suddenly  become  dumb  during  the  ser- 
mon for  several  minutes,  and  then  could  proceed  again.  Such 
attacks  may  also  occur  in  children,  whereby  changes  in  the  men- 
tal faculties  may  be  noticed,  and  later  on  also  indications  of 
moral  insanity.  A  case  of  that  kind,  and  its  development  I  can 
cite  as  an  example.  It  was  that  of  a  child,  of  a  well-to-do 
French  family,  who  would,  in  the  midst  of  a  conversation,  stop, 
be  as  if  absent-minded  for  a  few  minutes,  only  whispering  some- 
times to  himself,  and  then  come  to  again.  When  the  boy  grew 
up  he,  notwithstanding  the  frequent  attacks  above  described, 
graduated  from  high  school  without  any  extraordinary  diffi- 
culties, and  then  entered  as  volunteer  in  the  cavalry.  Now,  the 
family  physician,  my  friend  Professor  Launois,  in  Paris,  wrote 
to  the  colonel  of  the  regiment,  asking  for  his  release  on  account 
of  the  epilepsy,  but  because  an  objective  examination  showed 
nothing,  the  request  was  refused.  One  day  he  had  an  attack 
just  at  the  time  when  he  was  exercising  horse-back  riding  in  the 
armory.  He  rode  against  a  tree  and  the  horse  was  injured;  he 
was  then  released.  Soon  after,  however,  he  made  an  immoral 
attack  on  a  young  girl,  and  was  put  in  the  insane  asylum  at 
Villeneuf,  where  he  still  is.  He  never  forgets  to  send  a  New 
Year  congratulation  to  Dr.  Launois,  and  the  answer  which  he 
receives  he  keeps  for  months  and  shows  it  around.  A  patient 
may,  for  years,  have  major  attacks  of  epilepsy,  without  his  men- 
tality being  in  any  way  reduced;  many  attacks  are,  of  course, 
injurious,  particularly  in  older  people.  On  the  other  hand,  again, 
very  serious  cases  of  mental  dullness  may  occur,  even  in  some 
of  the  mildest  cases  of  epilepsy.  Very  instructive  in  this  respect 
is  a  case  of  Binswanger.^  He  had  under  observation  a  lady  y6 
years  of  age  who,  notwithstanding  her  having  epilepsy  and  being 

1  Binswanger,  Die  Epilepsie  in  Nothnagel's  Handbuch,  II  Auflage,  1909. 


188  Human  Intelligence. 


old,  was  very  highly  gifted,  manifesting  a  freshness  and  vivacity 
of  the  mind  and  judgment.  When  she  had  an  attack  late  at 
night  she  would  be  completely  prostrated  physically  and  men- 
tally for  several  days,  but  after  confinement  to  bed  for  several 
days  she  would  feel  entirely  well  again.  Otherwise  in  older 
people  often  repeated  attacks,  as  a  rule,  have  a  very  bad  influ- 
ence upon  their  mental  faculties.  Younger  individuals  may  keep 
themselves  in  good  condition  in  spite  of  violent  epileptic  attacks. 
I  observed,  for  instance,  four  years  ago,  an  epileptic  young 
woman,  the  wife  of  a  German  merchant,  who  apparently  had  a 
normal  intelligence  and  showed  a  vivid  interest  in  everything. 
Only  her  memory  suffered  very  much  from  taking  bromides. 
Her  pale  and  greatly  puffed  up  face,  swollen  hands  and  dry 
skin,  bags  under  the  eyes,  slow  speech  and  some  other  symptoms 
so  distinctly  reminded  me  of  myxedematous  conditions  that  I 
decided  to  put  her  on  thyroid  treatment.  The  result  was  that 
the  face  improved  very  much,  swelling  of  the  skin  lessened, 
expression  became  finer ;  epileptic  attacks,  which  previously  were 
frequent,  almost  weekly,  remained  absent  for  several  months, 
and  all  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  she  suffered  a  very  violent 
mental  shock  during  the  first  week  of  the  treatment.  Very 
favorable  results  with  thyroid  treatment  have  also  been  obtained 
by  Frohme  and  Hoppe,^  also  by  Stern.  Bolton  reported  at  a 
meeting  of  the  Dutch  neurologists  and  psychiatrists  that  he 
obtained  very  good  results  with  thyroid  treatment  in  all  the  20 
cases  of  epilepsy  which  he  treated.  The  effect  of  these  treat- 
ments may  be  explained  by  the  probability  that  the  toxic  sub- 
stances which  undoubtedly  play  a  great  role  in  the  etiology  of 
the  disease,  for  instance,  uric  acid,  are,  by  the  administration  of 
thyroid,  either  eliminated  or  their  abundant  formation  is  pre- 
vented. The  same  explanation  may  also  possibly  be  given  of 
the  fact  that  a  milk  diet,  which,  as  already  mentioned,  is  most 
favorable  to  the  thyroid,  acts,  according  to  the  experiments  of 


2  Frohme  and  Hoppe,  quoted  after  Kraepelin,  Psychiatric,  Bd.  iii,  VIII 
Auflage.  S.  U69, 


Influence  of  Epilepsy.  189 

Alt  and  Hoppe,^  also  favorably  here.  Based  on  these  experi- 
ments the  latter  investigators  recommend,  in  epilepsy  mainly,  a 
vegetable  diet  with  low  salt  content  and  plenty  of  milk.  Very 
injurious  for  these  patients  is  alcohol,  which  also  acts  unfavor- 
ably upon  the  thyroid.  Under  the  influence  of  alcohol  the  con- 
ditions become  worse,  and  it,  even  more  than  syphilis,  plays  a 
very  great  role  in  the  origin  of  epilepsy  in  those  congenitally 
predisposed,  as  well  as  in  cases  developed  in  the  adult. 


3  Alt  and  Hoppe,  Allg.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Psychiatric,  lix,  S.  713. 


IV.    INCREASE  OF  THINKING  ABILITY  BY  HYGIENIC 
AND  THERAPEUTIC  MEANS. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 
Promotion  of  Mental  Faculties  by  Hygienic  Means. 

A  GREAT  part  of  the  misery  which  oppresses  mankind  is 
due,  undoubtedly,  to  syphilis  and  alcohol.  Poverty,  which  is 
so  frequently  associated  with  them,  causes  underfeeding.  What 
makes  these  scourges  so  horrible  for  mankind  is  not  their  direct 
consequences,  the  terrible  destructions  of  body  and  mind,  the 
idiots  produced  by  them,  and  also  the  miscarriages,  but  the 
indirect  sequels  which  may  extend  through  many  generations. 
An  alcoholic  or  syphilitic  may  produce  a  number  of  children, 
some  of  them  become  high-grade  idiots,  others  may  be  fortunate 
enough  to  escape  idiocy,  but  they  will  be  of  lower  mentality  and 
unable  to  make  progress  in  school.  Such  a  case  of  a  family  of 
many  children  of  a  syphilitic  father  was  reported  some  years 
ago  by  Geza  von  Dieballa.^  If  the  offspring  of  a  syphilitic,  who 
is  more  or  less  mentally  deficient,  should  marry,  his  children 
will  probably  not  be  so  stupid  as  the  children  of  the  first  gen- 
eration, but  they  will  not  be  entirely  normal.  One  can  naturally 
transmit  only  what  one  possesses,  and  in  this  way  undoubtedly 
may  originate  entire  generations  of  lower  mentality.  In  a  like 
manner  may  be  transmitted  an  inferiority  of  the  physical  condi- 
tion of  the  body.  We  know  well  that  the  quality  of  the  duct- 
less glands,  as,  for  instance,  of  the  thyroid,  may  be  transmitted, 
as  is  shown  in  the  case  of  Mendel,^  in  which  the  child  had  a 
goiter,  the  mother  had  one,  and  also  two  aunts  and  a  grand- 
aunt  on  the  mother's  side.  Now,  syphilis  and  alcohol  affect  the 
thyroid,  and  in  newly  born  children  of  syphilitic  parents  one 

iv.  Dieballa,  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  fur  Nervenheilkunde,  1911. 
2  Sitzung  der  Berl.  Gesellschaft  fur   Psychiatric  u.  Nerv'enkrankheiten 
ref.  Archiv  fijr  Psychiatric,  Bd.  xxxviii,  S.  294. 
(190) 


Promotion  of  Mental  Faculties.  191 

finds,  as  before  mentioned,  a  congenital  degeneration  of  the  thy- 
roid. Children  born  with  such  glands  very  easily  become  vic- 
tims of  all  kinds  of  infectious  diseases,  just  because  the  glands 
which  protect  them  against  these  diseases  are  degenerated.  We 
thus  observe  how  syphilis  and  alcohol  ruin  whole  generations, 
and  it  may  justly  be  assumed  that  probably  a  great  part  of  the 
constitutional  diseases,  such  as  scrofulosis  and  tuberculosis,  par- 
ticularly tuberculosis  of  the  bones  and  various  kinds  of  mental 
deficiencies,  may  ultimately  be  attributed  to  the  dominating 
bad  influence  of  alcohol  and  syphilis  during  a  previous  genera- 
tion. These  are  personified  evils,  the  deleterious  influences  of 
which  may  possibly  be  felt  much  farther  on  than  in  the  third 
generation,  and  it  may  be  said,  in  general,  that  nearly  all  the 
misfortune  and  misery  of  mankind,  physical  as  well  as  mental, 
may  be  attributed  to  sins  and  excesses  of  previous  generations. 
To  ameliorate  such  bad  consequences  as  much  as  possible,  inter- 
marriages among  the  various  nationalities  and  various  classes  of 
people  would  be  appropriate,  because  the  bad  consequences  of 
consanguineous  marriage  may  be  due  to  the  augmentation  of 
such  harmful  hereditary  influences.  It  would  probably  be  pos- 
sible to  improve  the  coming  generations,  physically  and  men- 
tally, by  such  eugenic  measures. 

At  any  rate,  the  injuries  caused  by  syphilis  and  alcohol 
should  be  prevented  from  spreading  further,  even  if  it  be  neces- 
sary to  use  draconic  severity.  First  of  all,  the  blood  of  all 
men  intending  to  enter  matrimony  should  be  examined  for  the 
Wassermann  reaction,  and  if  the  result  is  positive,  marriage 
should  be  prohibited.  We  have  not  yet  reached  the  stage  to 
demand  the  same  from  women.  The  deliberate  spreading  of 
syphilis  from  one  person  to  another  should  be  considered  as  a 
crime,  and  punished  as  such.  We  owe  it  to  the  future  genera- 
tions to  use  the  most  rigorous  methods  for  preventing  the 
spreading  of  syphilis,  and  this  cannot  be  considered  as  limiting 
personal  liberty  if  we  do  not  consider  as  such  the  right  to 
injure  the  health  of  others.     Such  principles  of  freedom  were 


192  Human  Intelligence. 


not  in  the  mind  of  those  who  promoted  the  French  revolution. 
The  same  thought  should  be  used  in  regard  to  the  safeguarding 
of  men  and  property,  and  to  prevent  the  proliferation  of  alco- 
holics. In  all  domains  of  medicine  there  is  at  present  a  whole- 
some tendency  toward  rigid  prophylaxis;  may  it  be  applied  in 
this  respect  particularly  with  the  utmost  thoroughness. 

In  our  efforts,  moreover,  we  must  also  take  care  of  the 
child  as  yet  Unborn,  because  influences  which  may  later  ruin  the 
body  and  mind  are  already  active,  even  when  the  offspring  is 
still  within  the  body  of  the  mother.  First  of  all,  a  pregnant 
woman  must  have  the  necessary  care  appropriate  to  her  condi- 
tion. Unfortunately,  poor  people,  on  account  of  their  poverty, 
act  in  this  respect  with  great  ignorance  and  negligence.  Many 
a  peasant  would  take  more  care  of  his  pregnant  mare  and  would 
not  let  her  work  as  hard  as  he  would  his  wife,  who  may  be  far 
advanced  in  pregnancy.  But  it  is  necessary  to  show  the  same 
care  for  the  future  human  being  as  is  shown  for  the  unborn 
calf,  and  a  time  may  come  when  the  duty  of  the  State  will  be 
extended  so  far  that  the  condition  of  feeding  and  care  of  poor 
pregnant  women,  and  particularly  of  illegitimate  mothers,  would 
be  under  its  control.  The  conditions  in  general  which  exist  at 
present  among  so  many  who  are  to  become  mothers  are  a  mock- 
ery to  our  civilization.  In  the  interest  of  perfection  of  the  body 
and  mind  of  future  generations  a  change  in  this  respect  is 
urgently  needed,  and,  first  of  all,  the  ridicule  and  mockery 
directed  toward  unmarried  mothers,  which  is  entirely  unbecom- 
ing in  our  century,  should  cease.  ''Hats  off  before  the  pregnant 
woman,  whether  she  came  to  her  condition  by  law  or  without 
the  law,  because  in  her  speaks  the  voice  of  Nature,  and  she 
carries  under  her  heart  the  future  of  our  nation."  I  think  that 
intelligence  and  civilization  of  a  people  may  be  judged  by  the 
way  they  treat  their  women.  In  no  other  nation  of  antiquity 
were  the  women  so  well  treated  and  had  so  much  freedom  as 
among  the  old  Egyptians,  and  these  were  undoubtedly  the  most 
civilized  and  the  most  intelligent  people  of  their  time. 


Promotion  of  Mental  Faculties.  193 

Among  the  most  intelligent  nations  of  the  present  time,  as, 
for  instance,  England  and  America,  women  occupy,  undoubtedly, 
an  exceptional  position,  and  enjoy  much  more  freedom  than 
among  the  less  advanced  nations,  where  they  are  treated  like 
slaves,  and  hardly  dare  to  go  out  alone.  If  we,  therefore,  want 
to  think  in  advance  of  the  future,  and  this  foresight  is  the  right 
sign  of  intelligence,  then  we  must  give  the  woman,  as  the  carrier 
of  the  hope  of  mankind,  an  exceptional  position ;  and  we  should 
not  overburden  the  delicate  woman  with  work  like  a  pack-horse, 
which,  by  the  way,  makes  her  fertility  doubtful.  This  should 
be  forbidden  by  law.  The  best  way  to  prevent  it  would,  of 
course,  be  the  improvement  of  the  material  condition  of  the 
poor.  Poverty  plays  a  role  here,  and  it  is  also  co-operative  with 
these  other  injurious  causes  which  are  so  harmful  to  mentality 
of  mankind,  syphilis  and  alcohol.  Properly  speaking,  want 
should  lead  to  moderation,  but  actually  it  is  not  rarely  the  real 
instigator  of  intemperance  and  the  mother  of  drunkenness. 

Greatest  moderation  in  the  use  of  alcohol  is  to  be  recom- 
mended to  all  those  who  have  the  condition  of  their  mental 
faculties  at  heart.  Instead  of  using  alcohol  during  mental  work, 
coffee  and  tea  could  be  used,  but  of  these  also  strong  infusions 
should  be  avoided;  and  those  whom  the  use  of  these  beverages 
agitates  too  greatly  should  use  the  harmless  mate  of  Ile.v  para- 
guayensis,  imported  from  Paraguay  and  Brazil.  Tobacco,  when 
used  in  small  quantities,  can  surely  do  no  harm ;  there  are  many 
men  who  would  not  be  able  to  think  over  any  problem  or  put 
down  anything  in  writing  without  smoking  a  good  cigar.  The 
habit  of  smoking  we  find  also  in  many  great  thinkers,  as 
Spinoza,  for  instance,  whose  only  pleasure  was  smoking  the 
pipe.  Spinoza  was,  by  the  way,  a  Dutchman,  and  in  Holland 
almost  every  man  smokes,  many  from  early  childhood.  It 
seems,  however,  that  this  excessive  smoking  has  not  harmed 
their  mental  faculties  to  any  great  degree.  During  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries  they  surely  did  not  smoke 
less,  possibly  even  more,  because  the  pipe  was  then  in  vogue, 

13 


194  Human  Intelligence. 


and  small  Holland  was  at  that  time  the  world's  center  for 
scientists.  It  was  the  common  meeting  place  of  the  great 
thinkers  and  investigators  of  Europe;  Descartes,  Leibnitz, 
Swedenborg,  Linne,  Locke,  and  many  other  great  scholars 
remained  in  Holland  for  a  long  time  for  the  purpose  of  study, 
and  most  important  mental  productions  have  been  published  in 
Holland.  Young  physicians  from  all  parts  of  the  world  used  to 
make  pilgrimages  over  there  to  hear  the  lectures  of  the  great 
Boerhaave,  whose  works  have  been  translated  into  many  lan- 
guages, even  into  Turkish.  Together  with  other  great  men, 
Carlyle  was  a  passionate  lover  of  the  pipe,  and  this  may  possibly 
have  been  the  reason  for  his  constant  stomach  troubles. 

Too  much  smoking  may  act  very  injuriously,  however, 
upon  the  mental  faculties,  particularly  in  young  individuals,  and 
great  credit  for  calling  attention  to  this  fact  is  due  to  a  Dutch- 
man, the  Amsterdam  clinician  Pel,^  who  observed  the  bad  con- 
sequences of  it  and  its  unfavorable  effect  upon  the  blood-vessels. 
It  is,  after  syphilis,  one  of  the  first  causes  of  arteriosclerosis, 
which,  by  reaching  to  the  blood-vessels  in  the  brain,  does  great 
damage  to  the  intelligence  of  the  man.  If  an  individual  had 
syphilis  even  in  the  mildest  form,  and  notwithstanding  vigorous 
treatment  shows  a  positive  Wassermann  reaction,  and  at  the  same 
time  smokes  much  and  drinks  much  alcohol,  he  may  soon  get 
ready  to  make  his  will,  because  the  danger  for  the  body  and  mind 
is  very  great,  particularly  when  he  also  eats  much.  Too  rich 
feeding  is  just  as  bad,  not  only  for  the  body,  but  also  for  the 
mental  faculties,  as  is  underfeeding.  Weygandt  published  obser- 
vations which  show  that  hunger  diminishes  application  and 
increases  inattention;  also  the  faculty  of  association  becomes 
considerably  worse,  not  only  when  only  little  food  or  no  food 
is  used,  but  when  water  also  is  not  given.^  Hunger  also  causes 
difficulty  in  memorizing  and  learning  anything  by  heart.  We 
thus  see  how  important  sufficient  nourishment  is  for  school-chil- 

3  Pel,    Eine    Tabakspsychose    bei    einem    13jahrigen    Knaben,    Berliner 
klinische  Wochenschrift,  1911. 

4  W.  Weygandt,  Ueber  die  psychische  Wirkung  des  Hungers,  Miinchener 
med.  Wochenschr.,  1898,  S.  385 


Promotion  of  Mental  Faculties.  195 

dreii  and  students,  and  we  will  consider  this  in  a  separate  chap- 
ter. It  seems  to  me  probable  that  a  scanty  diet  is  most  beneficial 
in  such  mental  work  where  accurate  reasoning  is  most  neces- 
sary; in  exact  scientific  studies,  as  mathematics,  for  instance; 
and  in  such  cases,  a  vegetarian  diet,  if  it  is  not  carried  to 
extremes,  may  be  profitably  tried;  but  in  such  work  where 
imagination  is  necessary,  as,  for  instance,  that  of  artists,  com- 
posers, dramatists,  etc.,  a  liberal  diet,  with  the  addition  of  meat, 
would  be  a  very  good  thing.  The  latter  produces  also  a  more 
vigorous  influx  of  blood  to  the  brain-cortex,  particularly  when 
stimulants,  such  as  a  little  wine,  coffee,  or  tea,  are  taken  in  addi- 
tion. Of  course,  to  the  addition  of  wine  should  be  credited  a 
healthier  judgment,  which  restrains  a  too  vivid  imagination. 
Shakespeare  and  Burns  have  the  reputation  of  not  having 
despised  a  good  drop,  and  Byron  was  addicted  to  the  use  of 
geneva.  Scanty  diet  intercepts  a  profuse  blood-supply,  and  it 
thus  promotes  a  cold,  sober  judgment.  We  think  most  soberly 
when  our  stomach  is  empty;  therefore  in  the  early  morning 
hours!  When  we  wake  up  in  the  morning  and  remain  in  bed 
for  a  while  the  clearest  thoughts  come  to  us,  and  we  have  the 
best  judgment  about  various  problems.  The  empty  stomach  and 
horizontal  position  which  facilitates  the  influx  of  blood  to  the 
brain  are  contributing  factors,  but  this  is  not  the  same  as  a 
hungry  stomach  before  a  meal  while  at  the  same  time  moving 
about,  or  a  full  stomach  after  eating.  Many  people  are  able  to 
work  best  during  the  early  morning  hours — for  instance,  in  the 
case  of  the  writer,  between  4  and  8  o'clock  in  the  morning. 
Others,  again,  can  work  best  during  the  night  hours,  as,  for 
instance,  the  distinguished  traveler  and  naturalist,  Sven  Hedin, 
who  works  all  night  through,  then  goes  to  bed  at  5  o'clock  in 
the  morning,  sleeps  until  2  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  at  3 
o'clock  receives  his  visitors. 

We  could  easily  make  the  day  longer  and  work  more  if 
theatres  and  amusements  would  begin,  not  at  night,  but  in  the 
early  evening  hours,  after  an  early  supper,  and  work  would 


196  Human  intelligence. 

begin  earlier  in  the  morning.  It  is  quite  unnatural  to  sleep  late 
in  the  day;  the  natural  thing  would  be  to  use  the  evening  for 
amusement,  the  night  for  sleep,  and  reserve  the  day  for  work, 
and  use  the  holidays  for  pleasure  trips.  In  this  wa}^  suffi- 
cient time  could  be  found  for  the  recreations  so  necessary  dur- 
ing working  days,  exercising,  walking,  etc.  For  any  kind  of 
mental  work  the  latter  are  of  great  importance  to  retain  the 
mental  faculties  intact.  It  shows  the  great  wisdom  of  Ignatius 
Loyola  when  he  recommended  to  his  disciples,  in  educating  their 
pupils,  to  introduce  a  recreation  recess  after  every  two  hours 
study.  It  is  a  sure  thing  that  mental  overstrain  may  produce 
very  bad  consequences  on  the  well-being  of  the  body  as  well  as 
on  that  of  the  mind.  So  did  Alozart,  by  such  overstrain  even 
in  his  earlier  years,  dig  his  own  grave,  into  which  he  sank  so 
young.  He,  to  whom  the  only  pleasure  was  his  work,  remained, 
as  he  himself  stated,  awake  the  whole  night  long  working  on 
his  operas,  and  this  caused  great  injury  to  his  health.  Also, 
Goldoni,  who  wrote  sixteen  theatrical  plays  in  one  year,  had  to 
atone  all  his  after-life  for  such  excesses  in  mental  work. 

The  distinguished  naturalist,  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  after 
returning  from,  dinner,  worked  often  in  his  laboratory  until  early 
in  the  morning,  but  contracted  arteriosclerosis  prematurely,  and 
died  at  the  age  of  not  quite  50.  He  used  himself  up  by  too 
much  work,  having  been  so  diligent  that  he  even  did  not  take 
the  time  to  change  his  shirt,  but  put  a  new  one  on  top  of  the 
old  one,  and  frequently  had  on  several  shirts  at  the  same  time.® 

How  necessary  it  is  for  our  intellectual  faculties  to  observe 
the  rules  of  bodily  hygiene  is  shown  in  the  example  of  Napoleon, 
who  neglected  it  in  his  eating,  as  well  as  other  habits,  and  whose 
breakdown  occurred  in  conjunction  with  his  failing  health.  He 
spent  many  sleepless  nights  in  ardent  study  of  maps  and  charts 
and  planning  of  battles.  Often  he  alone  was  awake  while  his 
generals  slept.  He  was  a  man  of  highest  intelligence,  who 
worked  out  his  plans  in  all  their  details  in  advance  with  the 

SNach  W.  Ostwald,  Crosse  Manner,  II.  Auflage,  Leipzig,  1910. 


Promotion  of  Mental  Faculties.  197 

keenest  foresight  and  never  depended  on  anyone  else.  He 
depended  once  only  on  one  of  his  generals,  who  was  to  bring 
him  reinforcements  in  time  of  his  greatest  need  during  the 
decisive  battle  of  Waterloo,  and  he  was  disappointed,  and  his 
fate  was  sealed.  Particularly  unfavorable  consequences  may 
follow  such  reckless  spending  of  mental  forces  by  overexertion, 
when  it  causes  insomnia,  which,  by  the  way,  occurs  very  often. 
So  did  Boerhaave  once,  when  being  deeply  engaged  in  solving 
some  problem,  suffer  from  the  effects  of  the  overstrain  in  such 
way  that  he  could  not  sleep  for  six  weeks.  Sir  Isaac  Newton, 
as  reported  by  Locke,  once,  after  very  strenuous  mental  work, 
suffered  with  insomnia  to  such  an  extent  that  for  two  weeks  he 
could  not  close  his  eyes.  This  led  to  very  bad  consequences  for 
him,  as  he  became  mentally  confused,  and  only  regained  his 
mental  faculties  by  refraining  from  all  work  for  several  months. 
There  is  hardly  any  greater  factor,  or  one  that  can  do  as  much 
harm  to  the  intellectual  faculties  as  insomnia,  particularly  when 
it  is  combined  with  mental  overstrain  in  an  individual  suffering 
from  a  congenital  trait.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  then,  that 
Pascal,  who  manifested  traces  of  nervous  symptoms  in  child- 
hood, should  through  such  causes  have  become  melancholic,  and 
ended  his  life  in  insanity  at  the  age  of  39  years. 

Resting  the  mind  after  every  overstrain  is,  therefore,  one 
of  the  first  hygienic  rules.  Recognizing  this  truth,  Descartes 
wrote  his  favorite  pupil.  Countess  Elizabeth,  sister  of  the  Kurf. 
Karl  Ludwig  (the  same  man  who  offered  to  Spinoza  the  pro- 
fessor's chair  in  Heidelberg),  that  he  gave  his  thoughts  to  philo- 
sophical problems  one  to  two  hours  daily,  but  no  more.  Dar- 
win had  the  habit  of  working  mentally  only  three  hours  daily. 
If  a  visitor  carried  on  an  animated,  spirited  conversation  with 
him  for  any  length  of  time  he  would  ask  for  permission  to 
retire,  as  the  conversation  made  him  think  too  much.  With 
mental  capital,  even  more  than  with  money  capital,  one  needs 
to  economize,  and  should  not  waste  it  uselessly.  There  are 
many  men  who  waste  it  in  useless  discussion,  lingering  for  a 


198  Human  Intelligence. 


long  time  at  table  d'hote,  debating  important  questions  with 
people  who  are  entire  strangers  to  them,  and  thus  unnecessarily 
tax  their  minds.  All  this  means  a  great  dissipation  of  the  men- 
tal capital,  although  one  may  consider  it  as  recreation.  The  lat- 
ter is,  however,  surely  not  the  case.  It  may  also  happen  that 
persons  of  nervous  temperament  upon  such  occasions  become 
excited,  causing  an  elevation  of  the  blood-pressure,  which  is 
usually  the  case  after  excitement.  This,  however,  should  be 
avoided  altogether,  because  it  has  a  bad  influence  on  the  blood- 
pressure,  and  may  facilitate  the  development  of  arteriosclerosis. 
Of  course,  nowadays  it  is  very  hard  to  ward  against  this,  as 
anxiety  and  fear  of  coming,  perhaps  fatal,  occurrences  may  more 
than  in  any  other  way  promote  the  development  of  neurasthenia 
or  hysteria,  and  thus  injure  the  intellectual  ability  and  the  qual- 
ity of  mental  production  in  general.  Owing  to  the  exceedingly 
great  competition  in  all  lines,  the  rivalry  to  surpass  everybody 
else  and  in  everything,  often  followed  by  disappointment,  in 
addition  to  the  excitement  of  the  competition,  results  in  nerv- 
ousness. If,  in  order  to  contradict  this,  it  is  pointed  out  how  in 
past  centuries,  owing  to  the  turbulent  conditions  existing  at  that 
time,  no  one  was  sure  of  his  life,  that,  during  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  murder  and  debauchery  were  an  every-day  occurrence,  I 
would  say  that  because  of  this  very  fact  men  may  learn  to  adapt 
themselves  to  the  most  adverse  conditions.  If  one  sees  around 
him  murder  and  death  every  day  he  becomes  accustomed  to  it 
and  it  loses  its  horror.  As  an  example  I  may  call  attention  to 
the  calmness,  with  which  so  many  young  girls  (according  to  the 
report  of  executioner  Samson)  went  to  the  guillotine  during  the 
French  revolution,  often  even  laughing  during  the  last  journey. 
If  one  constantly  has  to  face  death,  he  does  not  fear  it ;  this  is  the 
case  with  young  soldiers  who  become  accustomed  to  the  smell 
of  powder.  Moreover,  we  cannot  reproach  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries,  because  in  all  the  acts  of  cruelty,  and  also 
in  their  highly  criminal  acts,  they  tortured  only  the  body.  To- 
day, on  the  other  hand,  men  are  tortured  in  a  way  that  is  far 


Promotion  of  Mental  Faculties.  199 

beyond  bodily  torture,  for  when  his  honor  is  attacked  a  man 
suffers  a  soul-racking  torture  that  cannot  be  expressed.  It  seems 
rather  paradoxical  in  this  materialistic  age  that  men  should  be 
so  vulnerable  in  this  respect.  Many  a  man  would  rather  undergo 
the  punishments  of  the  inquisition,  and  stand  the  pinching  with 
red-hot  pliers,  than  to  lay  bare  before  his  good  neighbors,  in 
open  court,  his  most  secret  and  carefully  guarded  family  affairs. 
The  learned  jurist  who,  as  a  punishment  for  crime,  introduced 
the  loss  of  civil  honor,  temporarily  in  Germany,  permanently  m 
Austria,  must  not  have  understood  much  of  human  nature, 
because  there  can  be  no  better  means  to  make  an  habitual  crim- 
inal out  of  a  man  who  became  a  criminal  through  want.  Oh! 
if  only  those  learned  men  possessed  an  ounce  of  what  is  not 
taught  in  universities,  namely,  common  sense.  And,  then,  we 
have  still  another  modern  tormenting  arraignment  for  the  mind, 
and  that  is  the  examination,  a  Moloch  to  whom  are  sacrificed 
the  flower  of  youth  and  their  nervous  systems,  which  to  that 
date  were  intact,  the  object  being  to  make  them  more  brilliant, 
and  therefore  increase  their  intelligence.  Whether  their  men- 
tal maturity  is  thus  gained  is  rather  doubtful;  certain  it  is  that 
preparations  for  examination  and  the  overstrain  caused  by  it 
often  induce  grave  disturbances  of  the  nervous  system  and  men- 
tal faculties,  the  consequences  of  which  may  be  felt  for  the 
balance  of  life. 

Our  so-called  humanitarian  age,  with  its  modern  cruelties, 
has  nothing,  therefore,  to  hurl  back  at  our  old  ancestors.  Prop- 
erly speaking,  if  we  examine  matters  more  closely  we  are  not 
very  much  in  advance  in  spiritual  matters,  surely  not  in  the  fine 
arts,  for  in  painting,  and  possibly  also  in  literature  and  music, 
we  stand  rather  on  a  lower  scale.  Onty  along  mechanical  and 
technical  lines  have  we  perfected  ourselves,  but  surely  not  in  the 
gifts  of  mind. 

We  are  bold  enough  to  call  our  time  the  century  of  enlight- 
enment, of  great  inventions.  If,  however,  we  trace  to  the  bot- 
tom of  things,  we  find  we  are  only  reaping  what  our  ancestors 


200  Human  Intelligence. 


have  sown.  All  of  our  knowledge  in  the  various  spheres  is,  so 
to  say,  the  ultimate  natural  consequence  of  the  discoveries  and 
inventions  of  great  investigators  during  past  centuries,  such  as 
Galvani,  Volta,  and  others,  which  we,  thanks  to  our  more  per- 
fect technical  means,  at  last  utilize  practically.  We  have  become 
more  practical,  but  not  much  wiser;  we  are  still  under  the  spell 
of  the  old  masters  and  still  derive  from  their  philosophy  the  old 
spirit,  as,  for  instance,  from  the  teachings  of  Aristotle,  by  which 
we  are  still  dominated.  We  boast  proudly  of  our  flying-ma- 
chines and  other  inventions,  whereas  ideas  similar  to  our  own 
have  been  advanced  centuries  ago,  and  much  that  now  seems 
to  be  entirely  new  in  the  realm  of  medicine  had  been  known 
before,  and  now  has  been  rediscovered.  Francis  Bacon, 
for  instance,  speaks  in  1624  of  the  glass  lenses,  by  the  aid  of 
which  the  most  minute  objects  could  be  plainly  and  perfectly 
seen,  of  instruments  by  means  of  which  the  voice  of  man  and 
animals  could  be  imitated,  of  boats  swimming  under  the  water, 
of  conducting  sound  for  long  distances  by  means  of  pipes,  of 
machines  flying  in  the  air;  he  actually  therefore  foresaw  all  our 
modern  discoveries.  Just  as  false  is  it  to  call  our  centur}'-  a 
humanitarian  one.  In  the  struggle  for  existence,  be  it  that  of 
individuals  or  entire  nations,  there  are  not  fewer  men  annihilated 
than  at  the  time  of  the  Assyrians  and  the  Pharaohs.  Of  course, 
thanks  to  our  more  perfect  technique  at  present,  it  is  done  more 
thoroughly  and  quickly.  Truly  speaking,  this  is  only  natural, 
because,  after  all,  human  nature  remains  the  same ;  I  know  noth- 
ing about  any  essential  change  having  taken  place  in  the  parts 
of  the  skeleton,  the  muscles,  the  cells  of  the  organs,  the  con- 
struction of  the  brain,  the  glands.  Surely  no  changes  have  taken 
place  in  regard  to  the  instincts  of  man.  Whether  he  is  dressed 
in  bearskin,  as  thousands  of  years  ago,  or  wears  a  high  silk  hat 
and  kid  gloves,  he  is  always  tormented  by  the  same  instincts, 
hunger  and  sexual  instinct,  which  drive  him  to  mischievous 
deeds,  with  only  this  difference,  that  now  he  handles  not  the 
club,  but  the  malicious  revolver.    The  bait  which  is  used  by  the 


Promotion  of  Mental  Faculties.  201 

leaders  to  ensnare  the  public  is  the  same  as  was  used  in  old 
Rome.  Only  in  one  respect  has  a  change  taken  place,  and  that 
is  that  the  religious  disposition  seems  to  have  been  lost.  And 
yet  we  see  that  such  great  thinkers  as  Descartes,  Pascal,  Leib- 
nitz, Bacon,  and  scientists  like  Haller,  Ampere,  Faraday,  Pas- 
teur, Arago,  and  many  others  have  manifested  a  pronounced 
religious  disposition.  Moebius®  also  points  out  that  "pious,  even 
church  devotees,  among  mathematicians  occur  very  frequently," 
and  mentions  the  names  of  Euler,  Keppler,  Gauss,  and  others. 
Baruch  (later  Benedictus)  von  Spinoza  was  also  not  such  an 
atheist  as  was  supposed,  for  his  biographer,  Colerus,'''  relates 
that  he  taught  the  children  of  his  landlady  to  go  to  church  fre- 
quently. The  same  may  be  said  about  Kant,  whose  old  table 
companions  were  the  ministers  Jachmann  and  Wasianski,  and 
who  sometimes,  himself,  delivered  sermons  in  country  churches. 


6  Moebius,  /.  c,  125. 

'''Johann  Colerus,  Das  Leben  des  Bened.  von  Spinoza,  Frankfurt  und 
Leipzig,  MDCCXXXIII. 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 

Hygienic  Means  to   Improve  the  Blood-circulation 
IN   THE   Brain. 

The  great  Dutch  physician  Boerhaave  made  the  suggestion 
that  the  feet  should  be  kept  warm  and  the  head  cool,  and  the 
correctness  of  this  view  was  confirmed  several  centuries  later  by 
O.  Miiller^  and  his  pupils.  These  investigators  have  found  that 
the  application  of  heat  to  the  periphery  of  the  body  reduces  the 
blood  in  the  brain,  by  contracting  its  blood-vessels,  whereas  cold, 
by  dilating  the  blood-vessels  of  the  brain,  may  produce  too  great 
congestion  of  blood  to  the  brain.  Cold  feet  must,  therefore,  be 
avoided  by  individuals  who  suffer,  for  instance,  from  arterio- 
sclerosis of  the  brain-vessels.  Warm  foot-baths  would  be  of 
great  advantage.  Daily  warm  foot-baths  would  be  a  very  use- 
ful hygienic  measure,  especially  for  brain-workers,  who  do  very 
strenuous  mental  work.  It  would  be  of  benefit  to  follow  this 
by  rubbing  the  feet  with  alcohol  or  eau  de  Cologne,  which  is 
by  itself  a  very  good  remedy  for  cold  feet.^  Full  baths  are  also 
useful  for  the  distribution  and  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the 
brain-cortex.  It  is  well  known  that  protracted  warm  baths  are 
used  in  congestive  conditions  of  the  blood  in  the  brain  in  ma- 
niacal conditions.  AlsO'  after  strenuous  mental  work,  particularly 
in  nervous  individuals,  a  somewhat  protracted  warm  bath  may 
be  very  beneficial.  For  depressed  individuals,  on  the  other  hand, 
a  pleasing  cold  bath  of  short  duration  may  produce  a  better 
influx  of  blood  to  the  brain  and  enliven  the  disposition.  These 
cold-water  procedures  must  be  adapted  to  the  individual,  other- 
wise they  may  do  harm  instead  of  good.  In  cases  where  a 
reduction  of  the  blood-supply  to  the  brain-cortex  is  desired,  car- 


1  O.  Miiller  and  Siebert,  Zeitschrift  fiir  experimentelle  Pathologic  und 

2  Lorand,  Old  Age. 

(202) 


Hygienic  Means.  203 


bonic  acid  batha  may  sometimes  be  used  profitably,  as  they  pro- 
duce a  congestion  of  the  blood  to  the  periphery ;  such  baths  may 
also  be  very  beneficial  to  nervous,  excitable  individuals  sufi;ering 
from  insomnia.  For  a  proper  blood-supply  to  the  brain  it  is 
very  important  to  avoid  as  much  as  possible  any  kind  of  dis- 
turbance in  the  general  distribution  of  the  blood.  In  overload- 
ing the  stomach  with  foodstuffs  which  are  difficult  of  digestion, 
for  instance,  a  congestion  of  the  blood  to  the  digestive  organs 
takes  place,  which  is  withdrawn  from  the  general  circulation,  the 
nourishment  of  the  heart  with  blood  becomes  deficient,  and  the 
blood-supply  to  the  brain  is  also  reduced.  This  is  also  the  cause 
of  sleepiness  and  of  difficulty  in  doing  mental  work  after  eating. 
A  similar  condition  takes  place  when  in  protracted  constipation 
the  fecal  matter  remains  too  long  in  the  intestines.  In  this  case 
also  free  thinking  may  be  rendered  more  difficult,  and  when  one 
M^ants  to  think  soberly  and  critically,  a  thorough  cleansing  of 
the  intestines  by  laxative  may  be  very  useful. 

Moderation  in  eating  and  a  sufficient  evacuation  of  the 
bowel  daily  must,  therefore,  receive  particular  attention  if  we 
wish  to  have  a  proper  circulation  in  the  brain.  This  is  of  great 
importance,  particularly  in  mental  work;  and  especially  when 
critical  meditation  is  required,  a  rational  diet,  abundant  in  vege- 
tables, fruit  and  desserts,  and,  when  necessary,  laxative  mineral 
waters,  is  to  be  recommended.  In  arteriosclerosis  of  the  brain  a 
profuse  purging  should  be  ordered.  I,  myself,  have  observed 
good  results  in  course  of  treatments  in  Carlsbad  from  the  use 
of  the  cold  spring.  Whenever  the  blood-pressure  becomes  too 
high  it  is  necessary  to  attend  to  a  proper  evacuation  of  the  bowel 
and  the  proper  activity  of  the  kidneys.  We  know  well  that  the 
condition  of  the  latter  plays  a  very  important  role  in  the  origin 
of  arteriosclerosis.  A  stimulation  of  the  functions  of  the  skin 
by  sweating  is  also  to  be  recommended  to  counteract  high  blood- 
pressure.  All  this  can  relieve  an  overburdened  heart,  and  an 
improved  heart  activity  will  also  improve  the  conditions  of 
blood-circulation  in  the  brain.     Frequently  outdoor  exercise, 


204  Human  Intelligence. 


such  as  walking,  will  also  act  in  a  very  hygienic  way,  as  the 
exercise  will  cause  more  blood  to  flow  to  the  periphery,  and  thus 
relieve  the  overfilled  brain-cortex.  For  brain-workers,  walks  of 
one  or  more  hours  daily  are,  therefore,  of  great  importance,  but 
if  the  heart  and  the  blood-vessels  are  not  in  the  best  order, 
greater  exertions,  such  as  climbing  up  steep  mountains,  should 
be  avoided.  While  it  is  more  hygienic  to  give  the  brain  entire 
rest  during  these  recreations,  in  practice  it  is  very  difficult  to 
accomplish,  because  the  thoughts  rush  upon  us  with  such  force 
that  we  are  unable  to  ward  them  off.  In  such  cases  I  would 
recommend  to  those  whose  circulation  permits  it  that  they 
select  steep  mountain  roads  as  a  help  to  distract  the  attention 
from  the  thoughts.  During  such  lonely  walks  in  Nature's  soli- 
tude, however,  sometimes  the  best  thoughts  come.  As  an 
example  I  may  mention  Beethoven,  who,  during  his  stay  in 
Moedling,  near  Vienna,  wandered  from  choice  through  the  fields 
and  mountains,  and  at  the  same  time  thought  on  his  composi- 
tions. The  same  was  the  case  with  Rousseau,  who  mentions  in 
his  "Confessions"  that  he  could  only  think  and  work  during  his 
walks.  Some  people  are  only  able  to  work  when  it  is  perfectly 
quiet;  others,  again  (these  are  rare,  it  is  true),  think  best  during 
noisy  concerts.  They  become  stimulated,  and  this  is  followed 
by  a  condition  of  inspiration,  which  plays  such  a  great  role  in 
great  creations.  My  opinion  is  that,  though  quietness  is  better 
for  critical  work,  noises  may  sometimes  stimulate  imagination. 
Strong  sensory  impulses  produced  by  a  concert,  for  instance,  in 
causing  excitement,  may  increase  the  blood-supply  to  the  brain. 
According  to  Lehmann^  an  increased  blood-supply,  a  more  rapid 
blood-circulation,  produces  also  a  more  rapid  metabolism  in  the 
central  nervous  system,  and  this  increases  the  power  of  imagina- 
tion. If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  blood-circulation  is  slow,  then 
the  individual  ideas  become  separated  again.  Of  great  impor- 
tance for  the  metabolism  and  blood-circulation  in  man,  as  well 
as  in  the  animal,  is  the  sunlight.     Light  and  shadow  play  the 

3  Lehmann,  Die  Hauptgesetze  des  Gef iihllebens,  1892. 


Hygienic  Means.  205 


same  role  in  human  life  as  the  good  and  bad.  The  light  corre- 
sponds with  the  good,  and  the  shadow  with  the  bad,  because  all 
the  good  comes  from  the  light;  it  dispenses  life,  nourishment 
and  health  to  man,  animal  and  plant ;  in  the  shade,  through  the 
want  of  light,  disease  and  death  take  their  origin.  In  the  same 
way  do  the  light-fearing  mob,  the  destroj^ers  of  human  life,  the 
various  minute  organisms,  thrive  best  in  dark  places,  wherein 
sunlight  never  reaches;  here  they  are  most  certain  to  spread 
diseases,  menacing  not  only  the  health  of  the  body,  but  also  of 
the  spirit;  these  organisms  fear  the  sun,  because  its  rays  mean 
death  to  them.  Similar  to  the  growth  of  a  young  tree,  or  like 
plants  in  general,  a  young  human  being  thrives  only  in  sufficient 
sunlight;  where  the  latter  is  lacking,  it  must,  as  we  show  dis- 
tinctly in  various  chapters  of  this  book,  perish  in  body  and  in 
soul.  Without  the  light  of  the  sun  man  cannot  procure  his 
nourishment;  it  would  have  to  become  one-sided,  deficient  in 
that  which  is  so  needed,  namely,  vegetable  and  grain  food;  and 
also  in  mineral  matters,  Vv^hich  are  so  essential  for  the  building 
up  of  the  brain.  As  it  is  shown  later,  he  could  not  make  use 
of  all  these  important  matters  for  the  body  economy  without  the 
aid  of  light.  Where  light  is  missing  there  also  is  mental  dark- 
ness found  most  frequently,  and  cretinism  and  idiocy,  as  already 
mentioned,  are  most  often  found  in  the  mountain  valleys,  where 
the  light  never  penetrates  or  is  insufficient.  We  should,  there- 
fore, seek  the  light  and  avoid  the  shade,  which  is  liable  also  to 
be  the  origin  of  colds,  tuberculosis,  rheumatism,  and  many  other 
ills  of  the  body  and  mind.  Only  in  sunlight  man  is  able  to  pre- 
serve his  powers  of  body  and  mind,  and  keep  them  in  order. 

Staying  in  the  open  air  has  the  advantage  that  we  absorb 
not  only  much  of  the  sunlight,  but  also  much  oxygen,  which  is 
of  greatest  importance  to  the  nourishment  of  the  central  nervous 
system.  Free  respiration  is  then  simply  indispensable,  not  only 
for  the  health  of  the  body,  but  also  of  the  mind.  A  sufficiently 
deep  inspiration  and  expiration  is  therefore  a  necessity,  and  it 
should  be  exercised  as  much  as  possible  in  pure  air,   during 


206  Human  Intelligence. 


movements  in  the  open  air.  It  promotes  a  lively  blood-circula- 
tion and  a  better  blood-supply  to  the  brain.  Systematic  respira- 
tory gymnastics  can  influence  very  favorably  the  blood-circula- 
tion, and  systematic  deep  breathing,  in  weakness  of  the  heart 
and  in  arteriosclerosis,  may  be  of  very  good  service.  This  can 
be  carried  out  best,  as  is  shown  by  the  investigations  of  Bruns 
and  T.  Pick,  by  breathing  with  pressure  below  normal.  This 
promotes  and  greatly  facilitates  the  venous  circulation,  and  the 
blood  is  discharged  more  easily  into  the  right  chamber  of  the 
heart.  The  left  chamber  also  works  better,  and,  therefore,  the 
whole  body,  and  consequently  also  the  brain,  are  better  supplied 
with  blood. 

Due  to  the  fact  that  the  breathing  pressure  is  below  nor- 
mal, the  diaphragm  functionates  better,  and  thus  the  abdominal 
viscera  are  relieved  of  blood.  This  will  also  improve  headache. 
Besides  the  deep  respirations  we  may  also  promote  the  circula- 
tion to  and  from  the  brain  by  appropriate  and  hygienic  clothing. 
Tightly  adhering  underwear  arrests  the  circulation,  but  worst 
of  all  are  corsets  and  tight  collars.  The  latter  press  upon  the 
jugular  vein,  and  thus  interfere  with  the  downflow  of  blood 
from  the  brain.  We  must  keep  in  mind  that  the  blood-vessels 
of  the  brain  have  a  communication  with  the  outside,  through  the 
nose  as  well  as  through  the  outer  covering  of  the  skull.  The 
latter  are  formed  as  shown  by  Hyrtl's  investigations,  by  the 
veins  branching  off  from  the  venous  plexus  of  the  dura  mater, 
pierce  the  bones  of  the  skull,  and  ultimately  enter  into  the 
jugular  vein.  The  blood-circulation  of  the  brain  may,  therefore, 
be  relieved  by  drawing  off  the  blood  to  the  outer  skin  of  the 
head.  In  his  well-written  topographical  anatomy  Hyrtl^  relates 
that  during  his  travels  in  Arabia  he  observed  how,  in  a  case  of 
sunstroke  and  also  of  dizziness  in  the  head,  the  Bedouins  pro^ 
duced  slight  punctures  on  the  head,  upon  which  the  hair  is  cut 
short  with  their  sharp  yatagan,  causing  a  flow  of  blood,  which 
was  followed  by  relief.     That  a  tight-fitting  collar  may  event- 


^Hyrtl,  Handbuch  der  topographischen  Anatomic.    Wien,  1860. 


Hygienic  Means.  207 


ually  produce  a  sensation  of  stupidit}-,  and  also  interfere  with 
the  mental  work,  I  have  often  observed  on  myself,  ^^^ar  should, 
therefore,  be  declared  upon  these  instruments  of  torture,  partic- 
ularly during  hot  summer,  from  a  hygienic  standpoint.  During 
the  hot  weather  we  must  cover  those  parts  least  where  the  blood- 
supply  is  greatest  to  the  periphery  of  the  body,  as  the  neck  and 
at  the  wrists;  and  during  the  winter  we  must  keep  those  parts 
warm,  because  it  is  here  the  body  cools  off  most. 

The  harm  done  by  tight  collars  is,  by  the  way,  also  seen 
from  the  investigations  of  Reschnikow  and  Davidenko.^  These 
authors  state  that  tight  collars  produce  difficulty  in  the  flow  of 
the  arterial  blood  to  the  brain,  and  of  the  venous  blood  from  the 
brain.  From  the  work  of  these  investigators  is  also  seen  the 
importance  of  a  correct  respiration,  and  in  this  respect  one 
organ,  which  we  have  already  mentioned,  plays  a  great  role  for 
the  blood-circulation  in  the  brain,  and  that  is  the  nose. 


5  Reschnikow  und  Davidenko,  Beitrage  zur  Pletysmographie  des  mensch- 
lichen  Gehirns.    Zeitschrift  fiir  Neurologic  und  Psychiatrie,  iv,  2,  S.  129. 


CHAPTER    XXV. 

The  Importance  of  Taking  Care  of  the  Nose  and 
About  Occasional  Snuffing. 

When  the  nose  is  stopped  up  through  a  bad  cold,  think- 
ing, as  already  mentioned,  becomes  difficult.  Children  who  suf- 
fer from  a  stopped-up  nose  on  account  of  adenoid  vegetations 
remain  backward  in  their  studies.  That  the  condition  of  the 
nose  has  an  influence  upon  the  blood-circulation  in  the  brain  we 
have  •  already  mentioned.  The  stopping  up  of  the  nose  may, 
however,  also  have  a  very  bad  effect  upon  the  activity  of  the 
brain,  by  interfering  with  the  supply  of  oxygen  to  the  brain, 
which,  as  we  know  from  the  work  of  Berger,^  is  of  great 
importance  for  the  activity  of  the  central  nervous  system. 
When  the  nose  is  obstructed  it  is  necessary  to  breathe  through 
the  mouth,  but  by  mouth-breathing  it  is  never  possible  to  get 
pure  air,  rich  in  oxygen,  into  the  lungs  in  such  a  quantit}'  as 
it  is  by  breathing  through  the  nose.  Children  suffering  from 
adenoids  get  stenosis  of  the  upper  air-passages  while  in  deep 
sleep  during  the  night,  so  that  they  are  awakened  by  the  diffi- 
culty of  breathing;  this  can  be  easily  recognized  by  watching 
them  when  they  sleep.  Such  children  may  grow  up  with  a 
deformity  of  the  chest,  which  injures  the  important  gas  exchange 
in  the  lungs,  and  thus  prevents  the  receipt  of  a  sufficient  supply  of 
oxygen.  When,  therefore,  children  are  backward  in  their 
studies  and  dull, — there  is  often  present  a  condition  of  idiocy 
or  imbecility, — it  may  be  attributed  to  the  difficulties  in  blood- 
circulation  of  the  brain  due  to  the  continuous  inflammation 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  nose;  and,  further,  also  to 
deficiencies  in  functions  of  several  of  the  other  sense  organs,  as, 
for  instance,  hearing,  sense  of  smell  and  taste,  due  to  the  changes 
produced  by  the  adenoids.  While  idiocy  as  a  sequel  of  adenoid 


1  Berger,  Beitrage  zur  Lehre  vom  Blutkreislauf  im  Gehirn,  Jena,  1910. 
(208) 


Importance  of  the  Nose.  209 

vegetation  is  not  altogether  a  frequent  occurrence  in  children 
afHicted  with  the  disease,  there  very  often  occurs  an  inability  to 
concentrate  their  thoughts  upon  one  point,  a  condition  to  which 
the  Amsterdam  ear  specialist  Guye^  gave  the  name  aprosexia 
nasalis.  This  is,  moreover,  as  we  showed  in  our  chapters  en 
mental  work  and  memory,  a  very  great  obstacle  in  studying, 
because  it  makes  it  impossible  to  discern  and  memorize  various 
things.  Guye  made  the  observation  on  many  students,  who  suf- 
fered from  such  vegetations,  that  they  made  no  progress  at  all 
in  their  studies,  particularly  in  mathematics.  That  the  adenoid 
vegetations  were  the  only  cause  of  this  was  proven  by  the  fact 
that  soon  after  the  adenoids  were  removed  by  operation  the 
condition  improved,  and  these  students  could  successfully  pursue 
mathematical  studies.  Also  In  children  who  were  backward 
before,  great  improvement  of  their  mental  faculties  could  be 
observed  after  the  operation.  It  is  advisable  to  perform  the 
operation  very  early,  at  any  rate  before  puberty;  particularly 
should  this  be  the  case  with  children  who  are  idiotic  to  a  great 
degree,  if  they  have  adenoids.  I  have  had  the  opportunity  many 
a  time  to  observe,  in  various  insane  asylums,  high-grade  idiots 
in  whom  adenoids  were  removed  after  puberty,  at  the  age  of 
1 6- 1 8  years,  who  manifested  no  improvement  of  their  mental 
condition.  This  cannot  be  wondered  at,  because  if  the  blood- 
circulation  in  the  brain  and  its  metabolism,  on  account  of 
obstructed  supply  of  oxygen,  due  to  stenosis  of  the  upper  air- 
passages,  has  been  difficult  through  many  years,  there  could 
have  been  no  possibility  of  a  normal  development  of  the  brain 
and  nothing  can  naturally  be  gained  by  such  an  operation  when 
degenerative  processes  in  the  brain-cortex,  continuing  for  years, 
have  already  produced  irreparable  changes  within  that  organ. 
That  the  results  obtained  will  be  the  more  favorable,  the  earlier 
it  is  actively  attended  to,  is  certain.  Surely,  not  every  idiot  who 
has  adenoid  vegetations  would  be  cured  if  these  were  removed 
in  the  proper  time  during  childhood,  but  no  one  would  dispute 

2  Guye,  Deutscher  Naturforscherkongress,  1878. 

14 


210  Human  Intelligence. 


the  fact  that,  by  making  possible  a  better  supply  of  oxygen,  and 
consequently  a  better  metabolism  in  the  central  nervous  system, 
his  chances  for  educational  ability  would  be  increased.  Be- 
sides adenoid  vegetations,  nasal  breathing  may  also  be  made 
difficult  by  long  standing,  chronic  colds  in  the  head,  with  result- 
ing hypertrophy  of  the  nasal  mucous  membrane.  To  prevent  an 
accumulation  of  secretions  it  would  be  advisable  to  properly  care 
for  this  very  important  organ,  to  irrigate  the  nasal  chambers 
daily  with  lukewarm  water  by  means  of  a  nasal  douche.  The 
open  end  of  this  glass  apparatus  is  inserted  into  one  of  the 
nostrils,  the  head  is  bent  backward,  and  then  the  water  runs  out 
through  the  other  nasal  opening.  Inhaling  ammonia  may  also 
be  of  advantage  sometimes  to  free  the  nasal  opening  for  breath- 
ing when  it  has  become  obstructed  through  the  swelling  of  the 
mucous  membrane.  Every  one  knows,  from  their  own  experi- 
ence, that  when  the  nose  is  obstructed  it  is  impossible  to  think 
clearly,  and  mental  work  is  often  interfered  with.  According 
to  my  own  experience,  inhaling  of  ammonia  may  very  often 
bring  much  relief,  a  dry  nose  becoming  moist,  because  the  dis- 
charge of  secretion  is  stimulated.  By  sneezing  much  of  the 
stagnated  nasal  secretion  may  be  removed.  If  a  mixture  is 
made  of  thymol,  the  powder  of  dried  white  sneeze-root,  with 
majorana  and  powdered  Florentine  root,  or  powdered  milk-sugar 
(for  women  the  quantity  of  sneeze-root  may  be  about  3  per 
cent,  for  men  3  to  4  per  cent.),  and  a  little  of  the  mixture  is 
inserted  into  the  opening  of  the  nostrils,  the  desired  effect  may 
be  obtained  in  a  few  minutes.  The  well-known  tobacco  snuff 
acts  in  the  same  way.  If  the  latter  is  only  used  occasionally  to 
free  the  nose,  nothing  could  be  said  against  it,  but  not  if  it  is 
used  continually,  daily  in  larger  quantities,  therefore  to  excess. 
And  still  we  see  that  many  of  the  greatest  thinkers,  great  men, 
like  Kant,  Hegel,  Frederick  the  Great,  Napoleon,  and  others, 
were  ardent  snuffers,  and  indulged  in  it  during  their  mental 
work  or  when  they  were  engaged  in  thinking  over  important  and 
difficult  problems.     I  have  often  been  assured  by  old  gentlemen 


Importance  of  the  Nose.  211 

who  have  been  snuffing  for  years  that  their  heads  were  reheved 
by  the  snuff,  and  their  thinking  became  easier.  A  short  time 
ago  I  was  told  by  a  Belgian  colleague,  a  well-known  psychiatrist, 
that  the  bishops  of  his  diocese  have  prohibited  the  use  of  snuff 
among  the  priests,  and  that  some  of  them  were  very  much 
embarrassed,  and  maintained  that  it  was  very  helpful  to  them 
in  their  mental  work.  There  may  possibly  be  some  truth  in 
that,  and  it  would  be  worth  while  to  give  this  matter  a  further 
trial.  In  persons  suffering  from  arteriosclerosis  of  the  brain- 
arteries,  snuffing  and  frequent  sneezing  may  have  very  fatal 
consequences.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  blood-pressure  is 
considerably  increased  by  sneezing,  the  question  could  be  justly 
raised  whether  long-continued,  ardent  snuffing  is  not  a  con- 
tributing cause  for  the  development  of  arteriosclerosis  of  the 
blood-vessels  in  the  brain.  I  may,  however,  mention  that  I  often 
met  very  old  men,  ministers,  who  have  been  ardent  snuffers  for 
many  years,  and  have  not  shown  any  signs  of  this  disease.  The 
danger  of  development  of  such  a  condition  is,  however,  very 
great  in  snuffers  who,  at  some  time  previous,  had  syphilis  and 
are  great  smokers;  or  have  used  alcohol  to  excess,  and,  besides 
that,  mentally  exert  themselves;  or  in  those  who  are  afflicted 
with  some  disease  of  the  kidneys. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 

The  Favorable  Influence  of  a  Sunny,  High  Altitude 
UPON  THE  Intelligence. 

While  visiting  the  Insane  Asylum  at  Nizza  it  struck  me 
that  almost  all  idiots,  without  exception,  came  from  the  sur- 
rounding deep  mountain  valleys,  as  Vesubie,  for  instance,  where 
the  sun  hardly  ever  penetrates.  I  recalled  then  that  similar  con- 
ditions may  be  observed  in  Switzerland.  Here  idiots  with  large 
goiters  and  cretins  are  found  in  the  valleys  with  very  little  sun- 
shine, and  the  same  is  the  case  in  Austria-Hungary,  in  Steir- 
mark,  and  in  the  Tyrol.  It  can  even  be  distinctly  established 
that  cretinism  only  occurs  on  the  shady  side  of  the  street,  and 
not  on  the  sunny  side  of  the  same  street.  We  know  that  the 
quality  of  the  drinking-water  has  a  great  influence  upon  the 
origin  of  goiter;  however,  where  we  have  to  deal  with  goiter, 
associated  with  idiocy  and  cretinism,  then  some  other  important 
factors  must  also  contribute  to  these  conditions.  According  to 
the  following,  we  can  hardly  doubt  that  the  m.ost  important  fac- 
tor in  this  respect  is  the  absence  of  sunlight.  Fifty  years  ago, 
an  old  practitioner.  Dr.  Besancemet,  in  Aigle,  near  ]\Iontreux, 
obtained  considerable  improvement  in  the  mental  condition  of 
cretins  and  mentally  backward  children  by  removing  them  from 
the  surrounding  mountain  valleys  to  Leysin,  situated  at  a  height 
of  1400  meters.  The  cretins,  who  formerly  had  been  entirely 
unfit  for  any  kind  of  activity,  became  docile,  and  could  be 
trained  for  various  kinds  of  work  when  they  returned.  Leysin 
then  became  known  as  a  place  of  cures  for  the  mentally  retarded 
long  before  anyone  discovered  that  it  was  a  place  which  would 
benefit  tubercular  patients. 

These  surprising  effects  can  only  be  explained  by  the  influ- 
ence which  the  sunny,  high  altitude  exercises  upon  that  organ, 
(212) 


Influence  of  Sunny  Altitude.  213 

the  changes  of  which  are  the  underlying  causes  of  the  produc- 
tion of  cretinism,  and  that  organ,  no  one  can  be  in  doubt  about, 
is  the  thyroid  gland.  That  the  presence  of  sunlight  in  its  per- 
fect purity  in  Leysin  is  actually  able  to  produce  a  favorable 
effect  upon  the  activity  of  the  thyroid  I  have  been  able  to 
observe  myself  during  my  stay  there  to  study  the  effects  of  sun- 
light. In  Dr.  Rollier's  clinic  a  large  number  of  children  with 
tuberculous  ulceration  of  the  bones  are  treated. 

I  saw  there  surprising  cures  of  these  affections  through  the 
treatment  with  sunlight,  which  is  a  generally  well-known  fact, 
and  probably  is  obtained  also  in  other  localities.  Of  particular 
interest  were  Rontgen  pictures  of  one  case  taken  before  and 
after  the  cure,  which  showed  that  not  only  a  beautiful  callus 
formed  on  the  diseased  bone  of  the  one  leg,  but  the  Rontgen 
shadow  of  the  whole  bone  was  much  more  opaque  and  less 
transparent  than  in  the  other  leg.  Undoubtedly  there  was  a 
much  better  nutrition  established  in  the  bone  of  the  leg  which 
was  irradiated  by  the  sunlight,  and  this  received  a  greater  sup- 
ply of  calcium  than  the  entirely  healthy  leg,  but  not  irradiated 
by  the  sun.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  bone-growth  is  regulated 
mainly  by  the  thyroid,  we  must  attribute  the  main  effect  to  the 
latter.  This  was  also  indicated  by  still  another  condition,  and 
that  was  the  growth  of  innumerable  long  hairs,  which  appeared 
on  the  irradiated  extremity,  also  in  girls.  And  it  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  growth  of  hair  is  also  influenced  by  the  thyroid, 
and  is  increased  by  an  increased  activity  of  the  thyroid.  We 
have  already  repeatedly  alluded  to  this  fact  in  other  parts  of  this 
book,  as  well  as  in  the  book  on  "Old  Age."  I  would  also  like 
to  mention  that,  according  to  the  reports  from  Dr.  Leuba,  Dr. 
Rollier's  assistant,  bone  fractures  heal  by  treatment  with  sun- 
light in  Leysin  in  a  surprisingly  short  time. 

Besides  the  promotion  of  bone  and  hair  growth  I  have 
observed  still  another  phenomenon  in  Leysin,  which  indicated 
an  increased  activity  of  the  thyroid,  namely,  a  greatly  increased 
diuresis   which   I   was   able   to   observe   in   myself.      When   I 


214  Human  Intelligence. 


reported  this  to  Dr.  Leuba  he  told  me  that  frequently  in  cases 
of  tubercular  peritoneal  exudations  and  of  ascites,  with  liver 
cirrhosis,  patients  lose  3  to  4  liters  of  urine  daily  only  through 
irradiation  of  the  sunlight. 

The  appetite,  while  there,  was  enormously  increased,  so 
that  I  could  eat  about  twice  as  much  as  usual.  We  know,  more- 
over, that  the  stay  on  the  sunny  mountains  greatly  increases  the 
metabolic  processes,  and  that  could  not  possibly  be  the  case  with- 
out the  influence  of  the  thyroid,  which,  as  is  well  known,  reg- 
ulates these  processes.  Another  indication  of  an  increased  activ- 
ity of  the  thyroid  is  the  observation  made  by  many  investigators, 
e.g.,  Zuntz,  A.  Loewy,  Mijller,  and  Caspary,^  of  the  increase  of 
the  number  of  white  blood-cells  in  such  climates,  as  well  as  the 
increase  of  the  total  quantity  of  blood.  That  the  thyroid  has  an 
immense  influence  upon  the  blood-formation  we  have  already 
emphasized  in  our  previous  writings. 

It  is  interesting  that  in  Leysin  I  could  do  with  less  sleep 
than  usual.  After  five  hours'  sleep  I  felt  very  well  rested.  For 
those  suffering  from  sleepiness,  a  stay  in  such  climates  would, 
therefore,  be  very  stimulating.  We  have,  moreover,  already 
mentioned  that  the  condition  of  continuous  sleepiness  can  also 
be  attributed  to  changes  of  the  thyroid.  Fatigue  also  does  not 
as  easily  take  place  in  such  climates.  I  have  undertaken  in 
Leysin  very  strenuous  tours  on  the  plains  and  in  the  moun- 
tains, and  became  only  a  little  tired.  Treatments  with  thyroid  act 
in  the  same  way,  if  they  are  not  used  to  excess. 

The  disposition  and  mental  condition  in  such  a  climate  be- 
come, as  I  was  able  to  observe  in  myself  and  others,  particularly 
in  a  great  number  of  children,  very  animated.  Notwithstand- 
ing that  many  of  the  children  were  compelled  to  lie  in  bed 
quietly  for  months,  they  were  very  lively  and  cheerful.  Answers 
given  to  questions  indicated  a  vivid  intelligence.  That  a  3-year- 
old  Hungarian  child  learned  German  and  French   from  those 


1  Zuntz,  A.  Loewy,  Miiller,  Caspary,  Hohenklima  und  Bergwanderungen 
in  ihrer  Wirkung  auf  den  Menschen.    Leipzig,  1906. 


Inilnence  of  Sunny  Altitude.  215 

around  him  in  two  months,  I  have  already  mentioned  in  another 
place  in  this  book. 

This  stimulation  of  the  mental  faculties  also  points  to  influ- 
ence of  sunlight  upon  the  activity  of  the  thyroid  gland.  The 
examples  given  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  may  also  be 
explained  in  the  same  way. 

As  further  supporting  proofs  I  want  to  mention  the  find- 
ings of  P.  F.  Richter^  and  Schrumpf^  that  the  stay  in  such  cli- 
mates has  a  very  favorable  influence  upon  obesity.  In  many 
cases  considerable  loss  in  weight  was  obtained,  which  is  similar 
to  observations  made  in  treatment  with  thyroid.  I  also  want  to 
point  out  that  Schrumpf,  in  St.  Moritz,  former  assistant  of 
Recklinghausen  and  Moritz,  has  observed  in  cases  of  grave 
diabetes,  which  have  occurred  in  that  place,  a  disappearance  of 
acetonuria  with  considerable  improvement  in  general  conditions 
without  using  any  special  diet.^  I,  myself,  was  able,  as  reported 
in  my  treatises  on  diabetes,*  to  obtain  in  every  case  disappear- 
ance of  even  large  quantities  of  acetone  and  acetonacetic  acid 
from  the  urine  by  administration  of  thyroid  tablets.  To  make 
the  similarity  between  the  results  of  the  treatment  with  thyroid 
and  a  stay  in  a  sunny,  high  altitude  still  more  evident,  I  may 
add  that  Schrumpf  had  also  observed  a  very  much  increased 
elimination  of  uric  acid  in  patients  with  gout.  According  to 
observations  reported  by  myself  and  others,  treatment  with  thy- 
roid acts  in  the  same  way.  There  is,  therefore,  along  the  whole 
line  a  corresponding  effect  from  thyroid  treatment  and  a  stay  in 
a  sunny,  high  altitude. 

The  favorable  results  obtained  in  high  altitudes  in  diseases 
of  the  nervous  system,  in  neurasthenia,  and  mental  disturbances 
by  Erb,  Laquer,  and  others,  may  probably  also  have  been  con- 


2  Richter,  Ueber  klimatische  Unterstiitzung  der  Entfettungskuren.    Zeit- 
schrift  fiir  Balneologie,  1908,  S.  26. 

3  Schrumpf,   Les  effets  physiologiques   dii   climat  de   hauteur.     Journal 
Medical  de  Bruxelles,  12  Jul,  1912. 

4  A.  Lorand,  Rational  Diet,  etc. 


216  Human  Intelligence. 


nected  with  the  improvement  in  the  activity  of  the  thyroid, 
which  is  a  regulator  for  the  nervous  system. 

In  favor  of  the  fact  that  sunHght  increases  the  activity  of 
the  thyroid  may  be  adduced  that  all  the  symptoms  of  overactiv- 
ity, such  as  elevation  of  the  temperature,  associated  with  great 
increase  of  the  number  of  the  pulse-beats  similar  to  high  fever — 
the  fever  itself  is,  as  I  have  shown,^  a  Basedow-like  symptom,  and 
is  caused  by  increase  of  the  thyroid  activity — may  be  produced 
by  being  exposed  too  long  to  the  sun-rays  in  a  sun-bath.  Other 
symptoms  may  be  sweating,  great  weakness,  fatigue;  everything 
the  same  as  during  fever.  Actually  every  fever  is  only  an 
arrangement  for  defense  in  our  bodies,  to  destroy  and  eliminate 
toxic  substances.^  It  has  also,  as  is  well  known,  been  shown  by 
a  number  of  investigators,  as,  for  instance,  by  Delattre,''^  Rue- 
diger,  Hektoen,  Rosenow,  and  others,  that  during  convalescence 
after  fever  diseases,  the  blood  contains  more  opsonins.  We 
know,  however,  that  the  content  of  opsonins  in  the  blood 
depends  on  the  activity  of  the  thyroid,  as  considered  in  Chapter 
II  of  this  book.  Similar  actions  have  been  found  by  Malgat^ 
and  Barse  with  regard  to  sun-treatment. 

Corresponding  with  this  we  are  also  able,  as  shown  already 
in  our  previous  writings,  to  obtain  all  symptoms  of  fever  by 
administrations  of  thyroid  preparations  in  excess.  Of  the 
actions  of  sunlight  we  may  possibly  think  that  they  cause  dila- 
tation of  the  peripheral  blood-vessels,  and  also  increase  the 
phosphorus  and  calcium  metabolism,  as  well  as  the  antitoxic 
processes  within  the  body ;  it,  moreover,  acts  directly  as  a  micro- 
bicide.  It  thus  has  a  very  powerful  influence  not  only  upon  the 
human  body,  but  also  upon  mentality,  and  is  simply  indispen- 
sable for  the  bodily  as  well  as  the  mental  welfare. 

To  fully  utilize  the  mentioned  effects  of  sunlight  certain 


5  Lorand,   Clinical   Observations  on  the   Origin   of  the   Fever,   Lancet, 
1907,  Nov.  17. 

6  Lorand,  Old  Age. 

'^  Revue  Internationale  de  la  Tuberculose,  Octobre,  1906. 
8  Malgat,  La  cure  Solaire,  Paris,  1912. 


Influence  of  Sunny  Altitude.  217 

conditions  must  be  fulfilled.  We  know,  as  has  been  mentioned 
elsewhere,^  that  a  greater  part  of  the  sun-rays  become  absorbed 
when,  before  reaching  us,  they  have  to  pass  through  several 
strata  of  clouds  and  smoke.  We  receive  them  at  first  hand  on 
high  mountain  summits.  Some  localities  are  particularly  favor- 
ably situated,  as,  for  instance,  Leysin,  where  the  sun  is  reflected 
by  a  widely  spread  snow-cover,  while  behind  there  is  a  high 
mountain  wall.  For  that  reason  the  sun-rays  develop  there  such 
a  heat  (40°  to  50°  C.)  that  naked  children  run  skis  on  the 
snow.  I  have  climbed  in  deep  snow,  in  my  shirt-sleeves,  up  to 
my  hotel,  situated  on  a  mountain,  and  was  then  in  a  perspiration. 

Equally  healthy  are  Davos  and  St.  Moritz  in  Switzerland, 
and  Tatra-Lomnitz  and  Tatra-Fuered  in  the  Carpathian  moun- 
tains in  Hungary.  A  wonderfully  clear  sun  is  also  found  in  the 
Tyrol  mountains,  and  in  some  valleys,  particularly  so  in  Meran, 
farther  on;  also  on  the  beach  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  on  the 
promenade  in  Nizza,^°  as  well  as  in  San  Remo  and  other  places 
of  the-  Riviera.  Here  we  find  the  glistening  surfaces  of  the 
water  reflecting  the  sun-rays,  and  the  background  is  formed  by 
high  mountain  walls.  In  some  localities  in  California,  at  the 
sea,  for  instance,  in  Santa  Barbara,  similar  conditions  exist. 
Such  localities  are  most  favorable  for  sun-baths.  I  know  from 
my  own  experience  what  a  difference  it  makes  to  take  a  sun- 
bath  in  Leysin,  or  on  a  plain  in  our  own  regions.  A  damp,  hot 
summer  day  is  surely  inappropriate,  and  can  only  do  harm.  The 
most  appropriate  time  is  during  the  forenoon  hours,  when  the 
sun  is  not  yet  too  hot, 

Malgat,^^  in  Nizza,  discovered  that  there  photographic 
plates,  set  behind  a  naked  individual,  have  shown  light  impres- 
sions. The  chemical  rays  of  the  sun  have  consequently  pierced. 
On  a  journey  to  the  North  Cape  he  found  that  the  rays  of  the 


9  Lorand,  Old  Age,  chapter  about  the  influence  of  the  sun. 

10  Malgat,  ;.  c. 

11  Malgat,  C.-r.  de  rAcademie  de  Medecine,  1903. 


218  Human  Intelligence. 


sun  in  the  north  have  not  shown  that  faculty.  Schlaeffer/^  on 
the  other  hand,  observed  that  after  sun  irradiation  the  blood 
inclosed  luminating  elements  which  influenced  a  photographic 
plate  in  the  dark.  It  is  to  be  mentioned,  also,  that  the  higher 
the  locaHty  is  situated  the  more  ultra-violet  rays  are  present. 

Light  was  tried  for  treatment  in  nervous  diseases  and 
psychiatry.  In  some  melancholic  patients  red  light  acts  as  a 
stimulant.  \\q  know,  by  the  way,  that  some  animals,  for 
instance  the  bull,  become  very  much  excited  on  beholding  any- 
thing red.  Blue  light,  on  the  other  hand,  has  a  very  calming 
effect.  Actually  obsers'ations  have  been  made  that  excitable 
patients  become  A'ery  much  quieter  in  cells  with  blue  light,  as 
I  have  often  seen,  particularly  in  French  hospitals. 

Based  upon  the  above  description,  I  think  it  would  be  well 
worth  the  trial  to  place  melancholic  patients,  and  particularly 
idiots  and  cretins,  and  all  feeble-minded,  in  a  sunny,  high  alti- 
tude. The  wards  for  patients  should,  however,  all  be  exposed  to 
the  rays  of  the  sun. 

I  would  like  to  add  here  that  Dr.  Rollier  made  some  inter- 
esting communications  to  me  in  regard  to  the  high  intelligence 
of  the  inhabitants  in  Leysin.  People  who  never  travelled  and 
who  almost  never  absented  themselves  from  the  village  for  any 
length  of  time  were  very  well  read,  and  expressed  a  distinct  and 
proper  opinion  in  regard  to  political  questions  and  about  all  that 
was  happening,  so  that  they  surprised  Dr.  Rollier.  During  the 
first  years  of  his  stay  in  Le3^sin  he  often  had  occasion  to  con- 
verse with  the  inhabitants,  and  to  admire  their  wisdom. 

In  perfect  accord  with  this  is  the  opinion  of  Schrumpf^^ 
about  the  inhabitants  of  the  sunny  Engadine.  These  are  all  able 
merchants,  good  calculators,  and  clever  men.  At  the  same  time 
they  live  pretty  well  apart  from  the  other  nationalities,  from 
whom  they  differ  also  in  their  origin.  Their  language  is  the 
Roman,  which  is  very  similar  to  the  Roumanian.     The  intelli- 


i2Archiv  fur  Physiologic,  1906,  S.  552. 
13  Personliche  Mitteilung. 


Influence  of  Sunny  Altitude.  219 


gence  of  the  children  manifests  itself  also  by  the  fact  that,  besides 
their  own  language,  they  speak  also  French,  German,  and  Italian. 
It  is  significant  of  the  great  intelligence  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Engadine  that  most  of  the  porters  employed  in  the  large  inter- 
national hotels  come  from  there.  And  everybody  would  surely 
agree  with  me,  that  hotel  porters  belong  to  the  most  intelligent 
class  of  men ;  they  all  speak  a  number  of  languages,  and  scarcely 
anyone  has  such  a  great  knowledge  of  human  nature  as  the  por- 
ter of  a  large  hotel.  One  look  is  often  sufficient  for  him  to  size 
up  the  internal  value,  but  particularly  the  external  value  of  a 
man.  Engadines  are,  moreover,  found  scattered  in  various  coun- 
tries as  rich  or  well-to-do  owners  of  large  business  establish- 
ments or  hotels,  often  only  a  few  years  after  they  had  left  their 
home  town  without  a  penny  in  their  pockets.  In  a  similar  way 
the  inhabitants  of  the  sunny  landscapes  in  the  Pyrenees,  the 
Basques  and  Catalonians, — they  belong  to  the  most  intelligent  in- 
habitants of  Spain, — become  very  rich  in  South  America.  The 
Scotch,  due  of  course  to  the  place  of  their  origin,  also  belong  to 
this  category,  and,  in  fact,  they  are  the  most  prosperous  of  all 
nationalities  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Lombroso^^  also  points  out  the  fact  that  the  inhabitants  of 
the  sunny  mountains  are  distinguished  by  particular  intelligence. 
We  think  we  have  given  in  the  above  discussion  the  explanation 
for  this  fact. 

For  confirmation  of  my  statement  made  above  I  would  now 
like  to  add  a  very  instructive,  practical  example,  for  which  I 
am  under  obligation  to  my  colleague  Schrumpf  in  St.  Moritz. 
A  few  years  ago  a  physician  from  Frankford  referred  to  him  a 
son,  who  was  a  high-school  junior.  The  boy  was  mentally 
backward;  he  was  always  sleepy,  could  not  keep  himself  awake, 
would  fall  asleep  in  school.  He  suffered  considerably  from 
obesity,  and,  according  to  Dr.  Schrumpf's  description,  I  consider 
it  as  a  case  similar  to  the  one  which  I  described  before,  namely, 
a  case  of  sleeping  sickness,  on  a  myxedematous  base.     After  a 


14  Lombroso,  /.  c. 


220  Human  Intelligence. 


stay  in  St.  Moritz  for  two  weeks  the  boy  became  more  alert 
mentally,  and  in  a  month's  time  was  an  entirely  different  person. 
He  lost  fifteen  pounds  in  weight,  sleepiness  was  entirely  gone, 
and  the  lad  became  entirely  changed;  he  became  mentally  very 
much  alive.  Whereas  he  was  mentally  so  wxak  that  he  had 
to  be  sent  to  St.  Aloritz  under  escort,  he  was  able  to  make  the 
journey  home  alone,  through  difficult  routes  at  that.  After  his 
arrival  home  he  sent  Dr.  Schrumpf  some  very  humorous  letters. 
Two  years  later  he  graduated  successfully  from  school. 

This  favorable  effect  of  the  climate  of  Engadine  upon  back- 
ward children  has  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  g}'mnasium  for 
just  such  children  in  Zuoz,  near  St.  Moritz;  tuberculous  children 
are  excluded.  The  establishment  of  this  institution  was  brought 
about  by  the  observation  made  that  visiting  children,  when  they 
stayed  in  Engadine,  developed  surprisingly  well,  not  only  bodily, 
but  also  mentally.  The  reason  for  this  may,  after  the  discourse 
above,  be  found  in  the  favorable  effect  w^hich  the  sunny  climate 
of  high  altitude  has  upon  the  activity  of  the  thyroid  gland. 


CHAPTER    XXVII. 

Hints  in  Regard  to  the  Best  Possible  Utilization 
OF  Sunlight,  and  How  to  Carry  Out  Sun-baths. 

After  the  discussion  in  the  previous  chapter  it  would  seem 
of  the  greatest  advantage  to  be  exposed  as  much  as  possible  to 
the  rays  of  the  sun,  if  they  are  not  too  hot.  The  sun  penetrates 
everywhere  where  unwise  men  put  no  obstructions  in  its 
path ;  it  shines  upon  the  high  and  low,  the  count  and  the  beggar ; 
its  rays  penetrate  into  the  palaces  of  the  rich  and  the  hut  of 
the  poor,  and  also  through  the  gaps  in  the  cellar  dwellings  of 
those  disdained  by  fortune.  Wherever  they  reach  they  destroy 
the  injurious  living  organisms.  The  latter  we  find  everywhere, 
— mostly,  however,  in  dark  dwellings,  particularly  when  they 
are  not  situated  in  a  high  locality.  We  see,  therefore,  in  large 
cities  the  inhabitants  of  the  dark  dwellings  deteriorate,  bodily 
as  well'  as  mentally.  Rheumatism  and  tuberculosis,  particularly 
of  the  bones,  are  very  common  among  them.  Among  the  chil- 
dren of  these  inhabitants  most  striking  degenerations  of  the 
thyroid  are  frequently  found,  as,  for  instance,  congenital  myxe- 
dema. Here  also  the  alcoholism  of  the  fathers,  which  occurs  so 
often,  plays  a  part.  It  is  no  wonder,  therefore,  that  these  chil- 
dren, who  are  also  poorly  nourished,  become  backward  in  their 
studies,  and  in  most  instances  do  not  advance  further  than  their 
fathers.  In  a  modern  State  to  each  citizen  should  be  given  a 
certain  portion  of  sunlight.  The  State  does  not  lack  for  com- 
pulsory measures;  why  does  it  not  use  them  to  close  up  those 
cellar  caves,  which  infect  the  body  and  mind,  as  well  as  those 
workshops  where  the  laborer  has  to  work  all  day  in  bad  air, 
from  which  the  sun  and  the  light  are  excluded?  A  simple  cal- 
culation should  show  those  in  charge  that  by  so  doing  the  State 
would  save  countless  millions  of  dollars  spent  for  the  support  of 
hospitals,  insane  asylums  and  prisons.    All  States  would  be  very 

(221) 


222  Human  Intelligence. 


much  better  if  they  followed  the  example  set  by  the  city  of 
Budapest,  and  built,  at  public  expense  for  the  people,  apartments 
and  dwellings  with  all  the  sunlight  possible.  Thus  millions 
could  be  saved  at  the  expense  of  one  million.  It  is  the  duty  of 
the  State  to  take  a  fatherly  interest  in  and  care  of  its  people, 
both  in  regard  to  their  mental  and  bodily  welfare. 

First  of  all,  every  man  should  see  that  he  has  a  dwelling 
which  has  much  of  the  sun  daily.  If  that,  as  it  happens  so  fre- 
quently, has  to  be  renounced  in  a  large  city  (the  exodus  of  the 
people  from  the  country  into  the  large  cities,  which  I  have  con- 
demned in  my  book  on  "Rational  Diet,"  herein  plays  a  great 
part),  one  should  attempt  to  have  a  high  location  for  a  dwelling, 
because  there  the  air  contains  less  bacteria.  It  is  remarkable 
that,  particularly  in  the  south,  at  the  Riviera  and  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  Tyrol,  rooms  with  southern  exposure  are  looked  for ; 
and  in  the  large  cities,  where  it  is  needed  still  more,  no  value  is 
attached  to  it.  In  the  southern  parts  of  Tyrol,  with  its  balsamy 
air,  the  rooms  with  a  northern  exposure,  if  they  are  only  one  or 
two  stories  high,  have  few  bacteria,  but,  of  course,  the  rooms 
with  southern  exposure,  well  exposed  to  the  sun,  contain  the 
least. 

Unfortunately,  we  find  people  who  prefer  to  have  curtains 
in  their  sunny  dwellings  to  prevent  the  health-giving  May  sun 
from  entering  them.  We  also  see,  ev.en  at  the  Riviera  and  in 
Meran,  people  of  apparent  intelligence  foolishly  walking  around 
in  deep-black  clothing  in  the  sunshine;  in  this  way  they  find 
their  clothing  very  hot,  but  do  not  let  a  single  ray  of  the  sun 
pass  through  it.  Attention  should  be  called  in  public  lectures 
to  the  immense  benefit  of  the  sunlight  to  the  bodily  and  mental 
welfare;  it  is  the  friend  of  man,  instead  of  his  enemy.  It  is  the 
southerners,  strange  to  say,  who,  able  to  benefit  by  the  strong- 
est sunlight,  are  just  the  ones  to  fear  it  most,  and  who  tightly 
close  up  their  houses  from  the  sun,  even  in  the  mild  spring. 
Another  extreme  we  find  in  the  well-known  fear  of  the  cold  by 
the  northlanders,  notwithstanding  the   fact  that  they  have  to 


Sunlight  and  Sunhaths.  223 

stand  it  the  most.  They  heat  their  homes  extensively,  early  in 
the  fall,  before  the  cold  sets  in. 

In  the  south,  where  the  sun  is  very  warm  in  the  spring, 
and  in  our  regions  during  the  warm  months,  when  the  sun 
shines,  we  must,  therefore,  endeavor,  by  wearing  very  light, 
porous  clothing,  of  white  or  light-gray  color,  to  absorb  as  much 
of  the  sunlight  as  possible.  Some  of  my  colleagues  in  Carlsbad 
consider  me  a  "queer  fellow"  because  I  cannot  bring  myself  to 
walk  around  during  the  summer,  in  the  warm,  bright  sunshine, 
with  a  black  dress  coat  on,  as  they  do,  but  prefer  to  be  dressed 
in  light-transmitting  white  or  gray  suit.  And  when  they  inter- 
view me  about  it  I  tell  them  it  is  because  I  am  sorry  for  myself 
and  for  the  black  material  of  the  garment ! 

Those  who  want  to  absorb  much  sunlight  during  the  winter 
and  spring  may  go  to  the  south  or  to  the  high  mountains  in  the 
Tyrol,  the  Tatar  mountains,  and  to  Switzerland.  As  mentioned 
before,  the  sun  rays  are  the  purer,  and  contain  the  more  chemi- 
cally active  substances,  the  higher  a  location  is  situated  in  the 
mountains.  Such  places  should  be  preferred  which  are  sur- 
rounded on  all  or  several  sides  by  naked,  high,  rocky  walls 
reflecting  the  sun,  as,-  for  instance,  Meran  in  the  southern  part 
of  Tyrol,  or  where  there  is  a  mirror  of  water  on  one  side  and 
high  rocky  walls  on  the  other;  or  the  entire  location  is  situated 
by  the  sea,  such  as  Nizza,  Nervi,  or  other  places  in  the  Riviera. 
Places  situated  high  in  the  mountains  and  with  snow-covered 
plains  on  one  side  and  high  rocky  walls  on  the  other  would  be 
preferable,  but  they  have  the  disadvantage  that  excursions  can 
be  undertaken  only  in  the  snow,  and  this  prevents  taking  daily 
distant  tours  on  foot.  For  hygienic  sun-baths,  however,  such 
localities  are  most  suitable.  It  is  directly  injurious  to  take  sun- 
baths  in  damp,  warm  localities,  during  the  height  of  summer. 
Dry  air  is  best  suited  for  this  purpose.  Otherwise  the  heat  rays 
are  mainly  active,  excessive  perspiration  sets  in,  and  after  that 
one  frequently  feels  very  much  exhausted  and  tired.  For  hy- 
gienic reasons,  it  is  not  good  to  take  such  baths  for  sweating 


224  Human  Intelligence. 


purposes  daily.  Sweat-baths  are  beneficial  in  cases  of  gout  or 
colds,  or  obesity,  but  then,  too,  they  must  not  be  taken  daily,  but 
every  other  or  every  third  day.  A  sun  sweat-bath  once  or  twice 
a  week  is  also  good  for  entirely  healthy  persons,  because  in  this 
way  a  number  of  substances,  injurious  to  the  body  and  mind, 
are  removed.  Hot  baths  and  sweat-baths  are  usually  adminis- 
tered in  mental  diseases,  particularly  in  maniacal  exaltations, 
because  they  promote  the  blood-distribution  in  the  body,  relieve 
the  congestion  of  the  brain  frequently  present  in  such  cases,  and 
remove  the  toxins.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  sun-baths,  even 
when  perspiration  does  not  take  place,  by  irradiating  the  whole 
periphery  of  the  body,  further  the  circulation  of  the  latter,  and 
thus  drain  off  the  blood  from  the  brain-cortex  in  case  of  con- 
gestion; they  can  be  used  daily  for  a  more  or  less  long  time, 
depending  on  the  warmth  of  the  rays.  As  soon  as  one  feels 
warm  and  perspiration  appears,  one  should  stop.  The  sweat- 
bath  itself  should  be  taken  once,  or  twice  a  week.  Such  a  sun 
sweat-bath  is  the  most  hygienic  and  most  ideal  sweat-bath  there 
is.  During  it  one  has,  first  of  all,  pure  air;  the  mucous  mem- 
branes do  not  become  as  dry  as  is  the  case  during  a  sweat-bath 
by  dry  heat  or  even  a  steam-bath.  If  it  is,  however,  overdone, 
it  may  become  very  injurious  to  the  heart,  and  to  the  nervous 
system.  If  it  is  taken  in  excess  in  tuberculosis,  very  bad  results 
may  follow.  In  anemic,  chlorotic  patients,  it  is  also  necessary 
to  be  very  cautious.  Neurasthenics  may  become  very  badly 
exhausted  by  such  baths  and,  instead  of  increasing  the  activity 
of  the  thyroid,  it  is  rather  reduced  by  exhaustion,  the  same  as 
in  excessive  thyroid  treatment,  with  which  the  sun  treatment  is 
greatly  analogous.  Mental  activity,  pleasure  in  working,  and 
the  power  of  judgment  can  be  considerably  promoted  by  profuse, 
not  too  hot,  sun  irradiation;  they  may  be  weakened,  however, 
by  excessive  and  frequent  sun  sweat-baths. 

Sun-baths,  as  well  as  any  other  warm  baths,  should  not  be 
taken  with  a  too  empty  or  a  too  full  stomach.  They  should  not 
be  taken,  therefore,  directly  before  and  also  not  directly  after 


Sunlight  and  Smihaths.  225 

the  main  meal.  During  the  summer,  a  dry  place,  which  is  very 
much  exposed  to  the  sun,  is  the  best.  On  very  hot  days,  the 
morning  hours  only  should  be  used.  Generally,  but  not  always 
with  good  judgment,  sun-baths  are  taken  on  the  beach  of  a 
stream  or  a  river,  where  damp  heat  is  dominant,  which,  during 
the  summer  months  with  their  excessive  heat,  is  not  without  its 
disadvantage.  The  advantage  is,  however,  in  the  fact  that  one 
may  be  undressed.  It  is  possible,  however,  on  the  roof  or  in 
the  garden,  protected  from  wind,  and  best  with  a  white  wall  as 
a  background,  which  reflects  the  rays,  to  take  a  sun-bath  even 
in  the  face  of  the  neighbors,  by  lying  in  the  sun,  dressed  in 
light,  airy,  thin,  white  clothes.  In  Leysin,  at  Dr.  Rollier's,  I 
have  seen  children  lying  in  their  white  beds  on  the  porches  as 
long  as  the  sun  was  low  during  the  early  morning  hours.  The 
sun  penetrates  easily  through  white  dresses.  In  the  sun  every- 
one should  wear  white  clothing,  and  the  ladies  should  not  have 
black,  but  red  or  white  umbrellas.  The  uncivilized  inhabitants 
of  hot  climates  are  instinctively  dressed  in  white.  This  is  also 
the  color  of  the  Howas  in  Madagascar,  and  of  the  Abyssinians 
and  Arabs.  The  Bedouins  are  also  clothed  with  dazzling  white 
wraps.  All  knowledge  which  these  nations  possess  is  based 
upon  their  experience,  and  the  latter  taught  them  the  excellency 
of  wearing  white  garments  in  the  sun.  Only  the  highly  edu- 
cated Europeans  stand  below  them,  as  in  so  many  questions  of 
human  sound  common  sense.  They  walk  around  with  black 
clothes  in  the  most  brilliant  sunlight. 


15 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

Furthering  of  Mental  Faculties  by  Means  of 
Certain  Drugs. 

A  DRUG  can  increase  mental  faculties  only  when  it  exer- 
cises a  favorable  influence  upon  the  circulation  in  the  brain. 
From  the  observations  of  a  number  of  investigators,  particularly 
from  those  of  Mosso,  Wagner,  Gartner,  and  chiefly  from  the 
painstaking  work  of  E.  \\''eber,  we  know  that  various  drugs  act 
in  that  way,  as,  for  instance,  the  fever  remedies,  such  as  anti- 
pyrin,  and  also  caffeine.  They  produce  a  dilatation  of  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  brain-cortex  and  hyperemia  in  that  organ.  May 
not  the  good-humor,  the  particular  feeling  of  well-being,  the 
euphoria  so  often  noticeable  after  taking  these  remedies,  have 
some  direct  connection  with  that  hyperemia?  I  consider  it 
probable,  because  we  know  from  the  investigations  of  E.  Weber 
that  sensations  of  pleasure  go  hand-in-hand  with  hyperemia  of 
the  brain,  and  sensations  of  displeasure  with  anemia  of  that 
organ.  We  know,  on  the  other  hand,  that  a  pleasant  good 
humor  is  an  essential  requirement  for  mental  work.  After  tak- 
ing caffeine  in  tea  or  coffee  one  feels  mentally  stim.ulated :  think- 
ing and  mental  work  become  easier.  Weber,^  it  is  true,  found 
that  after  a  certain  time  hyperemia  is  followed  by  anemia.  I 
consider  it,  however,  quite  possible  that  this  is  only  the  case 
when  larger  doses  are  taken,  similar  to  the  effect  of  fever 
remedies  upon  the  temperature,  whereas  smaller  doses  act  as 
stimulants,  irrespective  of  the  fact  that  some  investigators  have 
never  observed  any  subsequent  anemia.  According  to  my  obser- 
vations, salicylates  and  the  salicylates  containing  aspirin  have 
the  same  effect.  Euphoria  sets  in  and  the  flow  of  thoughts 
becomes  easier,  as  anyone  may  experience  in  himself  if  he  has 


1  Weber,  Der  Einfluss  psychischer  Vorgange  auf  den  Korper,  insbeson- 
dere  auf  die  Blutverteilung. 
(226) 


Favorable  Influence  of  Certain  Drugs.  227 

taken  some  of  the  salicylic  preparations,  and  does  some  mental 
work  two  or  three  hours  afterward.  These  remedies  cannot  be 
used,  however,  purposely  for  that,  because  the  daily  regular  use 
of  them  would  injure  such  important  organs  as  the  kidneys. 

That  it  is  possible  to  produce  a  favorable  influence  upon 
the  circulation  in  the  brain  by  means  of  drugs  is  also  shown  by 
the  conditions  existing  in  migraine  and  scintillating  scotoma.  It 
is  generally  accepted  that  these  latter  are  caused  by  changes  in 
the  blood-circulation  of  the  cortex.  When  we  use  a  remedy 
which  has  a  strong  effect  upon  the  latter,  such  as  amyl  nitrite,  we 
may  succeed  in  checking  the  attack  or  curing  it.  In  the  same  way, 
quinine,  or  strong  coffee,  or  tea,  may  affect  favorably  a  glim- 
mering scotoma.  According  to  my  experience  in  several  cases, 
the  inhaling  of  ammonia  may  also  check  a  glimmering  scotoma 
in  the  beginning  of  the  attack ;  if  the  remedy  is  used  immediately 
it  prevents  the  development  of  the  so-called  fortification  spec- 
trum. Ammonia  may  possibly  produce  a  modification  in  the 
blood7circulation  of  the  brain  by  strongly  exciting  nasal  secre- 
tions. That  this  kind  of  connection  surely  exists  is  best  proven 
by  the  fact  that  in  case  of  a  fainting  spell,  consciousness  is 
restored  by  inhaling  ammonia.  According  to  my  observations, 
the  inhaling  of  ammonia,  the  smelling  salts  of  the  English,  can 
also  produce  a  good  effect  in  a  lack  of  desire  for  work,  dullness  in 
the  head,  in  great  mental  exhaustion  after  protracted  mental 
activity,  also  in  conditions  of  depression  following  a  sleepless 
night. 

That  there  must  exist  remedies  which  have  a  beneficial 
effect  upon  the  mental  faculties  may  possibly  be  concluded  from 
the  fact  that  there  are  other  remedies  with  an  opposite  action, 
having  a  very  deleterious  effect.  This  can  often  be  observed  in 
the  stupidity  of  persons  who  were  previously  very  intelligent, 
— I  have  seen  many  such  cases, — after  the  protracted  use  of 
remedies  for  insomnia.  This  is  very  conspicuous  in  persons 
who  have  taken  bromides  for  a  long  time ;  for  instance,  in  epilep- 
tics.    We,  first  of  all,  see  a  striking  weakness  of  the  memory; 


228  Human  Intelligence. 


the  patients  are  unable  to  keep  anything  in  their  minds.  There 
also  exists  slowness  of  thought;  they  have  to  think  for  a  long 
time  before  answering  any  question.  Among  the  remedies  act- 
ing in  an  opposite  way  we  can  consider,  first  of  all,  preparations 
made  from  organs  which  we  will  consider  later;  and  then,  pos- 
sibly, the  above-mentioned  antipyretics;  also  caffeine  and  bever- 
ages containing  the  latter.  Of  course,  it  is  possible  to  partake 
of  coffee  or  tea  every  day  and  utilize  the  stimulating  condition 
which  follows  it  for  mental  activity.  I  consider  it,  however,  not 
a  hygienic  method  when  healthy  normal  men  partake  every  day 
of  strong  coffee  or  tea  to  increase  their  ability  for  mental  work. 
This  should  be  permitted  only  occasionally,  when  one  is  tired 
and  exhausted  and  some  mental  work  is  to  be  done  which  can- 
not be  delayed.  IMore  hygienic  than  the  use  of  coffee  or  tea  is 
the  use  of  mate,  a  variety  of  tea  imported  from  Paraguay  and 
Brazil,  the  properties  of  which  I  have  already  described  in  an- 
other of  my  books. ^  According  to  several  reports  published 
lately  by  French  investigators,  this  tea  acts  in  an  accelerating 
manner  upon  the  blood-circulation,  and  also  affects  the  tired 
feeling  following  muscular  exertion.  At  the  same  time,  it  lacks 
the  exciting  effects  of  coffee  or  tea,  and,  therefore,  could  be  used 
as  a  drink  during  mental  activity  in  nervous  individuals,  instead 
of  the  very  dangerous  alcohol  or  coffee  and  tea. 

Among  the  remedies  which  have  direct  effect  upon  the  men- 
tal faculties,  and  at  the  same  time  can  be  taken  daily  at  regular 
intervals,  may  be  mentioned  the  animal  thyroid.  It  seems  to 
me  not  improbable  that  in  producing  this  effect  a  drug  substance 
participates,  which  is  a  constituent  part  of  the  thyroid  and  that 
is  iodine.  This  substance  has  a  long-standing  reputation  for 
having  a  distinctly  favorable  effect  upon  the  blood-circulation. 
According  to  Ottfried  jMiiller  and  his  pupils,  it  is  particularly 
characterized  by  its  reduction  of  the  viscosity  of  the  blood,  and 
thus  facilitates  circulation  within  the  arteries.  AMien  we  think 
of  the  narrowness  of  the  minute  blood-vessels   in  the   brain- 


Lorand,  Rational  Diet,  etc. 


Favorable  Influence  of  Certuin  Drugs.  229 


cortex,  then  a  remedy  which  diminishes  the  viscosity  of  the 
blood  in  that  locaHty  must  appear  as  being  of  great  importance. 
It  is  true  that  the  statement,  that  iodine  reduces  the  viscosity  of 
the  blood,  has  not  been  generally  accepted  by  all  investigators; 
and  this  also  holds  good  in  regard  to  the  view  expressed  by 
Huchard,  that  it  dilates  the  blood-vessels  and  reduces  the 
blood-pressure,  but,  nevertheless,  every-day  experience  on  many 
patients  with  arteriosclerosis  teaches  us  that  under  the  use  of 
iodine  these  patients  feel  very  well,  often  extremely  so.  I  have 
also  noticed  particularly  how  often  a  reviving  of  the  mental 
faculties  has  taken  place.  I  have  often  treated  old  gentlemen 
with  arteriosclerosis  of  the  brain-vessels,  who  complained  of 
headaches,  dizziness,  and  pressure  in  the  head,  who  had  been 
entirely  unable  to  think;  they  did  not  notice  anything  and  had 
manifested  a  conspicuous  weakness  of  memory.  After  a  two  to 
three  weeks'  use  of  iodine,  they  have  shown  a  real  change.  The 
pressure  in  the  head  disappeared,  thinking  became  much  easier, 
and  when  questions  were  asked  they  were  able  to  think  over 
them  W'ithout  difficulty,  whereas  this  was  a  hard  task  for  them 
before.  The  memory  was  also  very  much  improved,  and  they 
could  retain  much  .more  easily  in  memory  what  they  were  told. 
In  view  of  this  favorable  effect  of  iodine  in  cases  of  arterio- 
sclerosis of  the  brain  blood-vessels,  may  be  raised  the  ques- 
tion, whether  it  would  not  be  more  rational  to  begin  with  this 
treatment  at  a  time  when  the  condition  is  not  as  yet  developed  ? 
From  the  clinical  standpoint,  I  consider  it  more  appropriate  to 
begin  with  the  iodine  treatment  as  soon  as  the  first  signs  of 
inclination  to  arteriosclerosis  become  apparent.  The  whole 
expression  O'f  a  person  sometimes  shows  a  tendency  to  it ;  for 
instance,  the  full-blooded,  plethoric  look,  red  color  of  the  face 
with  great  dilation  of  the  small  blood-vessels ;  first  of  all,  a  con- 
dition of  frequent  elevation  of  blood-pressure  or  continuously 
approaching  the  upper  maximum  limit  of  the  normal  blood- 
pressure,  or  even  getting  above  it.  In  addition  there  is  a  ten- 
dency to  constipation  and  to  changes  in  the  function  of  the  kid- 


230  Human  Intelligence. 


neys,  the  appearing  of  traces  of  albumin,  and  particularly  of 
formed  elements  of  the  kidney  in  the  urine.  The  danger  is  most 
threatening,  however,  when  we  have  to  deal  with  very  nervous 
persons  with  frequently  fluctuating  blood-pressure;  and,  above 
all,  with  those  who  frequently  overexert  themselves  mentally. 
It  is  my  opinion  that  Romberg's^  observation,  according  to 
which  sclerosis  shows  itself  particularly  in  those  blood-vessel 
regions  where  overwork,  with  too  great  blood  congestion  has 
taken  place,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  extremities  of  persons  doing 
very  much  physical  work,  finds  also  its  expression  in  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  brain.  That  the  brain-vessels  become  overfilled 
with  blood  during  mental  work  we  have  already  noted.  At  any 
rate,  it  may  be  mentioned  in  this  connection  that,  as  was  already 
stated  in  other  parts  of  this  book,  conspicuously  great  men, 
geniuses,  the  great  thinkers,  very  often  have  suffered  from 
arteriosclerosis,  and  very  often  apoplexy  was  given  as  the  cause 
of  their  death.  When,  therefore,  the  symptoms  named  above 
become  manifest,  and  mental  exertion  is  taking  place ;  and  when, 
in  addition,  there  is  associated  the  two  main  etiological  factors 
of  arteriosclerosis — (i)  syphilis,  from  which  the  patients  have 
formerly  suffered;  (2)  excessive  smoking — treatment  with 
iodine  should  not  be  deferred  until  arteriosclerosis  is  fully 
developed,  but  should  be  instituted  at  once.  Here,  also,  is  the 
golden  saying  justified,  "An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a 
pound  of  cure."  Treatment  should  be  begun  in  such  candidates 
for  arteriosclerosis  before  the  typical  manifestations  on  the 
heart  and  blood-vessels  have  taken  place.  If  we  assume  that 
iodine,  by  its  favorable  effect  upon  the  blood-circulation,  is  of 
avail  in  fully  developed  arteriosclerosis,  then  it  may  act  as  a 
preventive  in  not  yet  fully  developed  cases.  Small  doses  would 
suffice  here,  as  in  the  fully  developed  disease  also  small  quanti- 
ties are  sufficient.  I  have  shown  in  my  previous  book^  that 
iodine  is  of  most  assistance  when  it  is  given  in  not  too  large 


3  Romberg,  Die  Arteriosklerose,  Leipzig,  1898. 

4  Lorand,  Old  Age. 


Favorable  Influence  of  Certain  Drugs.  231 

doses,  and  I  made  there  the  remark  that  iodine,  arsenic,  and 
many  other  drugs  act  upon  the  various  tissues  and  the  injurious 
minute  organisms  within  our  bodies,  not  directly,  but  indirectly 
by  increasing  the  activity  of  certain  organs  of  defense,  the  duct- 
less glands.  This  is  also  very  clearly  seen,  for  example,  from 
the  failure  of  the  sterilisatio  magna  in  syphilis  with  salvarsan. 
The  Ehrlich-Hatta  remedy  produces,  in  an  indirect  way,  an  in- 
crease of  the  reactive  ability  of  the  organism  against  the  spiro- 
cheta,  but  does  not  directly  kill  the  latter,  as  they  remain  entirely 
undestroyed  by  this  remedy  in  vitro.  The  same  is  surely  the 
case  with  iodine,  and  I  have  already  pointed  out^  that  its 
effect  is  not  a  direct  one,  but  affects  the  thyroid  gland,  which 
contains  iodine;  and,  indeed,  contains  most  of  the  iodine 
in  the  body.  For  that  reason  I,  as  well  as  others,  have  recom- 
mended in  the  treatment  of  arteriosclerosis  that  iodine  be  used 
only  in  moderate  quantities,  because  these  stimulate  the  thyroid 
best  to  higher  activity ;  larger  doses,  on  the  contrary,  according 
to  the  experiments  of  Garnier  and  others,  may  cause  exhaustion 
and  underactivity  of  the  thyroid.  I  see,  moreover,  from  the 
literature  of  recent  years,  that  the  administration  of  iodine  in 
moderate  quantities  in  contrast  to  the  administration  of  large 
doses  formerly  given  has  been  accepted  by  most  of  the  clinicians. 
Another  remedy,  phosphorus,  in  the  form  of  various  organic 
compounds,  has,  according  to  observations  of  various  authors, 
some  of  which  are  very  trustworthy,  yielded  very  good  results 
ill  rachitic  children  with  deficiency  in  the  brain  function.  The 
children  have  manifested  higher  efficiency  in  school  require- 
ments. I  consider  it  as  quite  possible,  but  it  is  necessary  that 
those  ductless  glands  which  have  to  regulate  the  consumption  of 
the  phosphorus  in  the  body  economy,  first  of  all  the  thyroid,  the 
sexual  glands,  and  hypophysis,  should  be  in  good  working  order. 
In  accordance  with  my  theory  mentioned  above,  drugs  exercise 
their  effect  in  our  bodies  only  in  a  roundabout  way,  through 
the  ductless  glands,  which  regulate  the  immunity  and  metabo- 

^i  Old  Age. 


232  Human  Intelligence. 


lism,  particularly,  however,  through  the  thyroid.  Now,  one 
could  introduce  into  the  body  as  much  phosphorus  and  calcium 
as  one  wants  without  any  consequence  to  our  bodies,  like  into  a 
bottomless  pool,  if  care  be  not  taken  that  the  activity  of  these 
glands  is  not  at  the  same  time  stimulated  and  kept  in  good  order. 
These  glands  are  the  ones  which  take  care  of  the  retention  and 
utilization  of  these  mineralized  substances  which  are  so  impor- 
tant for  the  nutrition  of  the  central  nervous  system.  Treatment 
at  the  same  time  with  animal  thyroid  is  the  more  indicated, 
because,  as  a  rule,  children  and  adults  who  need  phosphorus  and 
calcium  also  show  signs  of  weakness  of  the  thyroid,  and  fre- 
quently also  of  the  sexual  glands. 


CHAPTER    XXIX. 

Improvement  of  Mental  Faculties  by  the  Use  of 
Extracts  from  Animal  Organs. 

That  drugs  do  actually  exist,  the  effect  of  which  is  to 
considerably  increase  the  mentality  of  a  man,  can  be  proven  in 
an  indisputable  way  by  the  favorable  results  obtained  with  thy- 
roid treatment  in  stupid  cretins,  and  also  in  idiotic  children. 
We  see  how  such  creatures  on  the  lowest  plane  of  intelligence — 
nay,  even  in  their  appearance  and  behavior  approaching  the  lower 
animals — will,  under  such  treatment,  assume  a  more  human  ap- 
pearance; and,  whereas  they  formerly  expressed  their  wishes  by 
barking  and  making  inarticulate  sounds  in  an  animal-like  manner, 
they  now  begin  to  make  themselves  understood  by  speaking.  It 
should  be  taken  for  granted  a  priori  that  a  remedy  that  does 
such  wonderful  things  in  those  entirely  deprived  of  reason, 
transforming  them  into  intelligent  creatures,  will  produce  very 
good  and,  possibly,  even  better  results  in  individuals  who  are 
not  of  so  low  a  mentality.  That  this  is  actually  the  case  can  be 
seen  from  the  fact  that  the  various  forms  of  thyroid  weakness 
may  be  favorably  affected.  We  have  already  said  repeatedly 
that  between  the  condition  in  which  the  thyroid  is  entirely  inac- 
tive— namely,  myxedema  and  those  conditions  in  which  the 
gland  is  intact — there  are  a  number  of  transitional  grades.  Of 
children  who  suffer  from  simple  inactivity  of  the  thyroid, — the 
simple  benign  weakness  of  the  thyroid  (Hertoghe), — there  are 
surely  many  thousands  in  existence.  To  this  category  belong  the 
numerous  children  who  are  the  offspring  of  alcoholic,  syphilitic 
(first  and  second  generations),  tubercular,  and  malarial  parents, 
or  of  such  as  have  suffered  from  other  chronic  cachectic  dis- 
eases. The  mental  signs  of  such  inheritance  (diseases  accom- 
panied with  fever  may  often  also  injure  the  thyroid)  are  of 
various  kinds,  beginning  with  animal-like  stupidity  up  to  slight 

(233) 


234  Human  Intelligence. 


mental  deficiency,  the  inability  of  calculating  and  forming  con- 
clusions. The  signs  of  the  mild  form  of  thyroid  weakness  are 
often  only  slightly  manifest;  frequently  the  diagnosis  is,  as 
Hertoghe  justly  says,  only  to  be  made  by  examination  of  the 
parents.  Frequently  the  children  remain  behind  in  their  growth, 
and  if,  in  addition  to  this,  they  do  not  make  good  progress  in 
their  studies,  the  diagnosis  is  then  justified.  The  condition  of 
the  teeth  may  also  speak  a  very  expressive  language.  In  grave 
cases  diagnosis  is,  at  any  rate,  made  clear  by  the  degenerative 
processes  in  the  jaws  with  the  irregular  arrangement  of  the 
teeth  in  form  of  steps;  in  mild  cases  the  teeth  often  remain 
undeveloped;  they  are  injured  very  easily,  and  are  most  sus- 
ceptible to  caries;  in  the  same  way  the  tissues  of  such  children, 
in  general,  manifest  but  very  little  resistance  to  inroads  of  infec- 
tious diseases.  Very  often  in  such  children  are  found  swollen 
lymph-glands  and  the  lymphatic  habitus  in  general;  they  are 
also  predisposed  to  scrofula  and  tuberculosis.  In  most  instances 
they  are  pale  and  delicate.  I  have  often  been  consulted  in  regard 
to  thyroid  treatment  by  parents  whose  children  remained  stunted 
in  their  growth;  that  the  children  had  not  progressed  mentally 
had  not  been  noticed  by  the  parents.  How  surprised  the  parents 
were  when,  after  the  treatment,  a  more  rapid  growth  took  place, 
and  the  children  at  the  same  time  became  much  brighter  and 
brought  home  from  school  better  reports.  Such  rapid  and  sur- 
prisingly good  results  have  been  published  by  Hertoghe  from 
Antwerp;  he  also  found  that  the  children  made  better  progress 
in  spelling  and  grammar,  and  also  in  arithmetic.  It  is  my  opin- 
ion that  in  all  cases  where  the  children  show"  a  conspicuous 
absent-mindedness,  laziness,  and  inability  to  remember  anything, 
a  cautious  trial  of  thyroid  treatment  should  be  made.  While,  as 
already  stated,  the  condition  of  thyroid  weakness,  either  con- 
genital or  acquired  through  various  causes,  particularly  through 
fever  diseases,  may  be  recognized  externally  by  typical  symp- 
toms,— ^first  of  all,  that  of  retarded  growth, — cases  are,  however, 
not  rare  in  which  the  symptoms  are  very  little  or  not  at  all  pro- 


Use  of  Extracts  from  Animal  Organs.  235 

nounced.  In  the  infantile  type  (Lorraine)  there  are  even  chil- 
dren who  grow  very  well,  but  they  are  delicate,  and  mostly  make 
no  particular  progress  in  school. 

A  particular  symptom  of  thyroid  weakness  is  undeveloped 
sexual  organs,  and  in  older  children  non-development  of  sec- 
ondary sexual  characters.  It  is  very  important  that  treatment 
should  be  begun  early,  and  that  the  children  should  not  be 
allowed  to  reach  puberty  without  having  tried  it.  If  a  weak- 
ness of  this  organ,  which  regulates  metabolism,  blood-formation 
and  blood-circulation,  is  present,  and  it  has  also  affected  very 
much  the  other  ductless  glands  which  regulate  these  functions, 
then  the  metabolism  of  the  central  nervous  system  and  of  the 
brain-cortex  especially  also  suffers.  The  fact  that  children 
retarded  in  that  direction  become  greatly  stimulated  in  their 
growth  after  the  thyroid  treatment  shows  distinctly  that  this 
gland  regulates  the  consumption  of  important  component  ele- 
ments in  the  brain-cells,  namely,  phosphorus  and  calcium.  While 
using  thyroid  tablets,  these  substances  are  better  utilized  if  they 
are  introduced  into  the  body  in  conjunction  with  the  food,  as 
is  described  in  various  parts  of  this  book.  By  increasing  the 
metabolism,  the  brain  also  beconies  better  nourished  with  blood 
containing  much  oxygen.  That  the  thyroid  has  a  favorable 
influence  upon  the  blood-formation,  and  that  by  the  use  of  the 
thyroid  tablets  the  number  of  red  blood-corpuscles  and  the  blood- 
circulation  are  increased  we  have  already  mentioned.  It  is  pos- 
sible to  easily  observe  how,  under  the  influence  of  such  treat- 
ment, the  number  of  pulse-beats,  the  height  of  the  temperature, 
and  the  quantity  of  urine  are  increased.  As  an  example  of  such 
a  distinct  effect  of  the  thyroid  upon  the  blood-circulation  and  the 
quantity  of  urine  voided  I  will  mention  here  two  cases  which  I 
have  observed  in  the  clinic  of  Professor  Pel  in  Amsterdam. 

For  the  permission  to  use  the  following  tables  I  am  under 
great  obligation  to  Dr.  Pel. 


236 


Human  Intelligence. 


Miss  L. 


Thyroid  Treatment. 

Started  on  November  12,  1912. 


Date. 


November  18 
21 
25 

December  2 
11 


Pulse. 


72 
78 
76 


Temperature. 


36.6° 
36.7° 
36.9° 
37.0° 
36.8° 


Quantity  of  Urine. 


1200 

1500 
1900 
1500 
1300 


Miss  V. 


Administration  of  Thyroid. 

Started  on  November  5,  1912. 


Date. 

Pulse. 

Temperature. 

Quantity  of  Urine. 

November 

5   

74 

88 
84 
90 
76 

77 

36.4° 
36.9° 
27.2,° 
2,7.2,° 
36.9° 
36.7° 

1900 

i( 

8    

2800 

« 

Ill    

1100 

" 

14    

1200 

« 

162    

1800 

December 

6    

1800 

We  thus  see  that  after  the  administration  of  thyroid  had 
been  interrupted  the  pulse  and  the  temperature  went  down  again, 
and  that  the  effect  subsided  only  gradually,  and  disappeared  only 
several  days  afterward. 

It  is  clear  that  a  remedy  which  produces  such  action  in  a 
depressed  condition  of  circulation  and  metabolism,  as  is  notice- 
able, as  a  rule,  in  persons  with  a  weak  thyroid,  may  also  have  a 
mighty  influence  in  increasing  the  development  of  the  central 
nervous  system,  and  also  of  the  brain-cortex.  It  is  evident  that 
it  would  not  be  wise  to  delay  the  treatment  until  the  brain-cortex 
has  developed  abnormally,  and  irreparable  changes  have  taken 
place.  It  must  be  anticipated,  and  the  treatment  begun  very 
early.  Thyroid  tablets  should  be  administered  to  the  mother 
during  pregnancy,  or  during  the  lactation  period,  if  she  mani- 
fests any  signs  of  thyroid  weakness.     It  is  a  positive  fact,  as 


1  Last  day  of  using  thyroid. 

2  Thyroid  not  used  for  five  days. 


Use  of  Extracts  from  Animal  Organs.  237 

shown  in  my  previous  publications,  that  the  substance  of  the 
tablets  passes  into  the  milk.  Children  with  congenital  weakness 
of  the  thyroid  also  show  no  symptoms  of  that  condition  as  long 
as  they  are  receiving  their  mother's  milk,  and  they  manifest  the 
symptoms  only  after  they  have  been  weaned.^ 

It  would  be  very  appropriate  to  begin  the  treatment  while 
the  children  are  small,  at  the  age  of  three  to  four  years,  or  even 
still  younger.  Of  course,  the  backwardness  in  mental  faculties 
may  often  be  recognized  when  the  children  begin  to  go  to  school, 
or  even  in  the  kindergarten.  It  could  readily  be  recognized  dur- 
ing the  games,  which  are  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  sense  exer- 
cises, as,  for  instance,  in  recognizing  colors,  correct  sight  and 
the  sense  of  touch.  A  trial  with  thyroid  treatment  may  be  all 
the  more  readily  made,  because  it  is  harmless  when  it  is  done 
cautiously,  and  the  quantity  of  the  thyroid  given  is  small. 

Based  upon  my  own  experience  in  numerous  cases  I  can 
state  that  I  have  never  seen  a  skillful  treatment  ever  having  bad 
consequences.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  how  first  the  exterior 
of  the  child  changes :  first  of  all,  a  rapid  growth  takes  place,  and 
in  conjunction  with  these  changes  in  the  exterior,  but,  as  a  rule, 
somewhat  later,  an  improvement  in  mentality  becomes  apparent. 
I  have  observed  how  previously  entirely  indifferent  children 
became  inquisitive,  began  to  take  interest  in  various  things,  and 
to  ask  questions  about  them.  Soon  a  distinct  improvement  in 
school-work  was  noticed;  the  children  made  better  progress  in 
the  branches  in  which  they  had  before  been  lacking,  even  if  only 
within  the  limits  of  their  natural  capabilities.  In  some  children 
who  had  been  wetting  their  beds  I  have  observed  an  improve- 
ment in  that  respect;  this  was  discovered  before  by  Hertoghe. 

While  the  best  results  are  obtained  in  children,  effects  of 
thyroid  treatment  may  be  observed  in  adults  also. 

Wagner  von  Jaueregg**  was  able,  as  mentioned  in  another 


3  Lorand,  Old  Age. 

4  Wagner  von   Jaueregg,   Handbuch   der    Psychiatric,   Myxoedem   und 
Kretinismus.    Leipzig  und  Wien,  1912. 


238  Human  Intelligence. 


part  of  this  book,  to  obtain  distinct  improvement  of  the  mental 
condition  by  means  of  thyroid  treatment  in  cretins  who  were 
more  than  20  years  of  age.  That  we  can  obtain  good  results 
also  in  adults  is  already  seen  from  the  fact  that  in  the  fully 
developed  forms  of  degeneration  of  the  thyroid,  in  myxedema, 
according  to  the  coinciding  observations  of  numerous  authors, 
the  mental  condition  may  be  markedly  improved.  The  pre- 
viously apathetic  patients  begin  to  take  interest  in  their  environ- 
ment; the  inertness  which  is  so  marked  in  them,  and  which 
expresses  itself  by  their  remaining  in  one  position  so  long  at 
a  time,  gradually  disappears,  and  they  become  very  active.  I 
would  like  to  point  out  further  the  noticeable  improvement  of 
their  memory.  But  here  also  the  same  rule  applies  as  in  chil- 
dren, that  the  prospects  for  improvement  of  the  stupidity  are 
best  before  the  disease  in  its  course,  which  lasts  many  years, 
has  reached  an  irreparable  stage,  and  changes  have  already  taken 
place  in  the  thyroid  as  well  as  in  the  brain-cortex.  Very  favor- 
able results  may  also  be  obtained  in  the  not  fully  developed 
cases,  in  simple  weakness  of  the  thyroid,  as  was  first  stated  by 
Hertoghe,  and  afterward  by  myself,  a  statement  based  upon, 
a  large  number  of  cases.  I  have,  in  particular,  been  able  to 
make  observations  on  the  effect  of  thyroid  treatment  in  numer- 
ous women  during  the  climacteric,  and  in  the  period  after  it. 
Very  often  these  were  women  who  had  taken  thyroid  treatment 
under  my  direction  to  correct  obesity  and  other  manifestations 
caused  by  changes  due  to  age.  After  several  weeks'  treatment 
obesity  disappeared,  and,  at  the  same  time,  I  was  able  to  observe 
that  the  women,  who  had  appeared  dull  previously,  were  very 
much  improved  in  their  mental  condition;  they  became  much 
brighter.  The  great  fatigue  disappeared,  and  the  patients  who 
before  had  no  interest  in  anything  had  become  interested  in  all 
around  them.  Their  ability  to  notice  things  around  them  had 
increased  very  greatly,  and  they  could  remember  the  things 
Avhich  they  would  readily  have  forgotten  before.  In  some  of 
them,  who  had  in  former  years  been  mathematicians,  but  had 


Use  of  Extracts  from  Animal  Organs.  239 

entirely  lost  that  faculty,  I  could  observe  that,  after  three  weeks' 
treatment,  they  were  able  to  multiply  in  their  minds  one  two- 
digit  number  with  another  very  much  more  quickly.  The  trend 
of  thought  was  also  much  faster,  as  they  could  find  the  appro- 
priate words  to  express  themselves  during  conversation.  The 
improvement  in  mental  vivacity  was  unquestionably  present,  and 
the  same  observation  was  made  by  others  after  thyroid  treat- 
ment. 

As  an  interesting  counter-example  of  the  question  here 
under  consideration,  I  may  mention  that,  just  as  treatment  with 
thyroid  increases  the  mental  faculties,  so,  on  the  other  hand, 
blood-extracts  from  animals,  from  whom  the  thyroid  was 
removed,  exercises  a  contrasting  effect.  This  was  established 
in  persons  who  were  treated  for  Basedow's  disease  with  anti- 
thyroidin  of  Moebius.  Diirig  has  observed,^  for  instance,  in  a 
patient,  after  treatment  with  that  remedy,  a  stupidity,  a  weak- 
ness of  memory  and  sluggishness,  in  thinking,  which  only  disap- 
peared when  she  stopped  taking  the  remedy. 

I  would  now  like  to  suggest  the  following  question:  If 
the  treatment  with  thyroid  in  cases  of  inactivity  or  degeneration 
of  the  thyroid  and  in  low  mentality  renders  such  good  results, 
would  it  not  be  possible  in  a  case  of  a  normal  thyroid,  and  of 
normal  mental  activity,  to  increase  the  latter  ?  In  fact,  Hertoghe 
haS'been  able  to  observe  often  upon  himself  a  stimulation  of  the 
mental  faculties  by  taking  two  or  three  thyroid  tablets  at  once 
before  delivering  a  lecture.®  I  can  also  confirm  this  from  obser- 
vation upon  myself  while  taking  thyroid  for  many  years  for 
experimental  and  studying  purposes,  that  when  I  felt  exhausted 
after  long  hours  of  work,  and  took  two  tablets  at  night,  I  felt 
much  more  refreshed  the  next  morning,  and  felt  much  more 
pleasure  in  working.  I  want  to  emphasize  particularly  that  the 
thyroid  tablets  have,  in  my  opinion,  the  faculty  of  producing  a 
better  spirit,  and,  consequently,  more  joy  in  working.    That  the 


^Diirig,  Miinchener  med.  Wochenschrift^  1908,  Nr.  18. 
6  Verbal  communication. 


240  Human  Intelligence. 


thyroid  is  a  stimulant  for  the  brain-cortex  has  been,  by  the  way, 
expressed  years  ago  by  the  English  psychiatrist  Clouston.  This 
increase  of  working  ability,  after  the  thyroid  treatment,  I  have 
been  able  to  observe  very  often  in  neurasthenics,  with  symptoms 
of  depression,  in  whom  an  improvement  of  the  nervous  condi- 
tion with  a  more  cheerful  disposition  and  a  distinct  desire  for 
mental  work  took  place,  which  found  its  application  in  carrying 
on  correspondence,  and  in  much  reading.  Very  conspicuous  was 
the  improvement  of  the  memory.  Words  in  foreign  languages, 
which  were  forgotten  for  a  number  of  years,  came  back  to 
memory  once  more.  That  the  thyroid  treatment  may  produce 
such  good  results  in  this  kind  of  case  cannot  surprise  us  if  we 
take  into  consideration  that,  according  to  a  number  of  authors, 
it  even  rendered  good  results  in  cases  of  mental  diseases,  such 
as  melancholia  and  dementia  prsecox.  In  melancholia  I  have 
observed  improvement  in  many  cases  myself,  after  a  combina- 
tion of  treatment  with  thyroid  and  ovarian  extracts. 

Notwithstanding  this  favorable  influence  of  the  thyroid 
upon  the  desire  to  work  and  the  disposition,  I  would  consider 
it  proper  to  try  its  effect  only  in  cases  where  a  weakness  or  an 
inactivity  of  the  thyroid  is  to  be  corrected.  To  take  thyroid 
daily  for  some  time  in  order  to  increase  the  quality  of  the  men- 
tal work  would  seem  to  me  only  so  much  more  of  a  mistake,  as 
in  persons  with  normal  thyroid  an  overactivity  of  it  is  pro- 
duced, and  this  may  cause  very  undesirable  effects  in  the  nervous 
system,  and  in  the  circulatory  apparatus.  The  thyroid  is,  like 
all  other  effective  remedies,  surely  not  a  harmless  one,  and  in 
the  hands  of  untrained  laymen  it  is  often  a  dangerous  weapon. 
In  view  of  the  fact,  moreover,  that  these  undesirable  symptoms, 
as  a  rule,  become  manifest  only  after  it  has  been  used  for  a 
long  time,  and  in  large  doses,  frequently  also  only  after  the 
use  of  preparations  of  doubtful  quality,  a  trial  with  thyroid 
treatment  would  be  worth  while  in  all  cases  where,  in  children 
and  in  adults,  there  is  found  a  conspicuous  laziness,  absent- 
mindedness,  and  a  lack  of  desire  for  work,  lack  of  conversation. 


Use  of  Extracts  from  Animal  Organs.  241 

marked  weakness  in  concentration  and  memory.  If  observation 
of  the  pulse  and  the  heart  activity  is  made  every  third  day,  it  is 
possible  to  carry  out  these  treatments  without  any  difficulty,  as 
I  have  seen  in  the  course  of  years,  in  hundreds  of  cases.  At 
any  rate,  I  consider  it  necessary  to  undertake  such  experiments 
only  when  signs  of  deficiency  in  function  are  manifest  in  the 
thyroid,  and  also  in  the  body. 

In  girls  who  (as  is  often  seen  in  children  who  are  mak- 
ing slow  progress  in  school)  show  signs  of  insufficient  develop- 
ment, undeveloped  female  sexual  characters,  absence  of  men- 
struation after  puberty,  I  consider  it  wise,  according  to  my 
experience,  to  give,  in  addition  to  thyroid,  also  animal  ovary. 
It  is  often  possible  to  observe  that,  after  treatment  with  thy- 
roid alone,  sexual  development  progresses;  in  girls  menstru- 
ation sets  in,  and  often  the  breasts  develop  much  better;  in 
boys  a  descent  of  the  testicles  takes  place,  in  case  this  had 
not  taken  place  before.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  how,  in  con- 
junction with  this  also,  a  marked  improvement  in  the  mentality 
sets  in,  thus  manifesting  the  close  relation  which  exists  between 
the  function  of  the  sexual  glands  and  the  intelligence.  The 
administration  of  "extract  of  ovaries  can  give  excellent  results 
also  in  nervous  complaints  of  women  during  and  after  the 
climacteric,  and  the  disturbances  of  mental  faculties  caused  by  it. 


V.  THE   POWER  OF  THINKING,  AND   RATIONAL 
THINKING— THEIR   DEVELOPMENT,  PARTIC- 
ULARLY BY  PRACTISING  THE   SENSES. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

The  Seat  of  Thinking  Power  and  the  Process 
OF  Thinking 

When  in  a  human  being  or  lower  animal  the  large  brain  is 
destroyed  or  removed  by  an  operation,  a  very  great  change  takes 
place  in  his  mental  and  spiritual  deportment. 

An  almost  total  loss  of  all  the  experiences  undergone  takes 
place,  and  remembrance  of  all  past  events  is  blotted  out.  Such 
a  man,  or  animal,  may  retain  the  faculties  of  sight  and  hearing, 
but  cannot  recognize  what  is  seen  or  heard.  As,  for  instance,  in 
a  dog,  from  which  Goltz^  removed  the  larger  brain,  it  was  pos- 
sible to  observe  that  the  animal  was  not  frightened  even  by  the 
most  threatening  gestures;  it  did  not  recognize  them.  Just  as 
slight  was  the  reaction  to  caressing.  AMien  the  animal  was 
pinched  it  barked  or  grumbled,  but  never  had  an  idea  of  biting ; 
in  short,  it  had  no  feeling.  It  always  ran  around  without  any 
definite  plan,  which  expressed  its  entire  lack  of  will-power. 

If  the  same  operation  is  performed  on  a  chicken  or  pigeon, 
and  the  animal  is  set  on  a  hot  stove,  it  would  sit  alternately  on 
one  leg  and  then  on  the  other,  but  never  make  any  attempt  to 
fly  away.  They  pick  up  the  seeds,  but  never  swallow  them,  and, 
therefore,  it  becomes  necessary  to  feed  such  birds  by  force, 
otherwise  they  would  soon  die. 

Sometimes,  very  rarely  however,  there  occur  human  mon- 
strosities in  whom  the  large  brain  is  absent.  Of  such  a  case 
Monakow^    reported    that    it    presented    the   highest    grade    of 

1  Goltz,  Archiv  fiir  die  gesamte  Physiologic,  1892,  S.  140. 

2  Gehirnpathologie,  II  Auflage.     Berlin,  1905. 

(242) 


Seat  of  Thinking  Power.  243 

stupidity.  This  creature  could  not  speak  a  word ;  it  was  entirely 
blind,  and  all  extremities  were  paralyzed.  When  it  was  hungry 
it  expressed  it  by  roaring ;  feces  and  urine  were  eliminated  under 
it.  In  such  animals  or  human  beings  it  is,  therefore,  impossible 
to  speak  of  intelligent  thought. 

According  to  the  experiments  made  it  seems  that  the  front 
part  of  the  large  brain — the  forebrain — plays  the  most  impor- 
tant part  in  the  process  of  thinking.  This  is  the  locality  in  which 
changes  are  found  most  frequently;  first  of  all,  in  most  cases  of 
mental  diseases,  particularly  in  the  gravest  form,  paralytic  insan- 
ity; and  the  changes  take  place,  according  to  Bolton,^  first  in 
the  outermost  end  of  that  region.  In  congenital  imbecility  it  is, 
again,  according  to  the  same  author,  this  part  which  is  unde- 
veloped. On  the  other  hand,  Ziehen^  has  found  in  microcephalic 
idiots  the  forebrain  often  relatively  better  developed  than  the 
other  lobes. 

In  tumors  of  the  brain  or  in  softening  processes,  which  are 
localized  in  this  part  of  the  brain,  it  is  very  often  possible  to 
find  that  during  life  a  mental  breakdown  existed. 

If  in  animals  the  forebrain  is  removed,  very  important 
changes  in  their  mental  behavior  may  be  observed;  they  often 
become  malicious.  Their  nature  seems  to  have  changed  still 
more  than  the  mental  faculties.  Occasionally  similar  observa- 
tions may  be  made  in  man.  As,  for  example,  Professor  Winkler 
reported  to  me  the  case  of  a  gentleman  in  whom  Sir  Victor 
Horsley  had  removed  the  forebrain  on  account  of  a  tumor.  The 
intelligence  did  not  seem  to  be  diminished,  but  distinct  changes 
in  character  appeared.  It,  nevertheless,  belongs  to  the  great 
exceptions  when  loss  of  the  forebrain  does  not  produce  great 
defects  in  the  intelligence. 

If  we  want  to  appreciate  properly  the  great  significance  of 
this  part  of  the  brain  for  our  thinking  ability,  we  must  compare 


3  Bolton,  Goulstonian  Lecture,  March  1,  1910. 

4  Ziehen,     Leitfaden     der     physiologischen     Psychologic,     Jena,     1911, 
Seite  215. 


244  Human  Intelligence. 


its  fully  developed  form  in  man  and  intelligent  animals  with  the 
size  of  this  region  in  animals  of  low  intelligence.  Whereas,  in 
the  latter,  it  is  hardly  developed  at  all;  in  man  it  is  of  great 
importance,  being  about  30  to  40  per  cent,  of  the  entire  part  of 
the  large  brain. 

In  animals  where  the  forebrain  is  greatly  developed,  we, 
as  a  rule,  also  find  higher  qualities  of  the  intelligence.  So  we 
see  in  ungulates  an  enormously  developed  forebrain,  richly 
grooved  with  numerous  convolutions.  And  to  the  classes  of 
hoofed  animals,  in  fact,  belong  some  of  the  most  intelligent  ani- 
mals, such  as  the  horse,  the  elephant,  the  pig.  That  the  latter 
is  more  intelligent  than  is  usually  assumed,  and  that  it  is  even 
capable  of  being  well  trained,  I  have  already  mentioned  in  my 
book  on  "Old  Age."  In  the  Central  Institute  for  Brain  Research 
in  Amsterdam,  I  saw  a  brain  of  a  giraffe  in  which  I  admired 
the  beautiful  structure  of  the  forebrain,  but  I  am  unable  to  give 
any  details  about  the  mental  qualifications  of  that  animal. 

The  delphines  have  a  large  and  very  much  convoluted 
brain  with  well-developed  hemispheres,  and  they  are  actually 
very  intelligent.  In  the  Aquarium  at  Brighton,  Saville  Kent 
observed  such  animals,  which  already,  on  the  second  day  after 
they  were  taken  in,  ate  from  the  hand  of  the  keeper  and  allowed 
him  to  caress  them  in  a  manner  similar  to  a  dog.^  Delphines  are 
also  very  inquisitive.  The  males  protect  the  females,  and  the 
young  are  given  instruction  in  swimming. 

According  to  the  anatomist  Rudinger,^  men  of  low  men- 
tality show,  on  the  average,  a  more  simple  form  and  less 
extended  third  frontal  convolution  than  those  of  high  mental- 
ity; in  newborn  boys  it  is  larger  and  better  developed  than  in 
girls.  As  a  rule,  it  is  better  developed  on  the  left  side  than  on 
the  right.  In  examining  the  brains  of  distinguished  scientists, 
particularly  of  mathematicians,  there  can  be  observed  a  strik- 


5  Saville  Kent,  Nature,  1873,  p.  229. 

6  Riidinger,  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Anatomic  des  Sprachzentrums.     Stuttgart, 
1882.    Cottasche  Buchhandlung. 


Seat  of  Thinking  Power.  245 

ingly  well-developed  frontal  lobe,  particularly  the  third  convolu- 
tion of  it  So  did  Hansemann'''  find  particularly  well  developed 
frontal  lobes  in  the  brain  of  Helmholtz.  A  strongly  developed 
third  frontal  convolution  of  the  brain  of  the  great  mathematician 
Gylden,  and  of  the  distinguished  woman  mathematician  Kowa- 
lewska,  is  reported  by  Retzius.^  Dwight^  noticed  in  the  brain 
of  the  mathematician  and  physicist  Chauncey  Wright,  known  as 
a  ''general  critic,"  a  strongly  developed  and  artistically  built 
frontal  lobe.  A  strikingly  immense  development  of  the  frontal 
lobe,  with  very  profuse  convolutions,  has  been  found  by  Rudolph 
Wagner^  *^  in  the  brains  of  the  .great  mathematicians  Gauss  and 
Dirichlet.  According  to  Moebius,^^  the  front  end  of  the  third 
convolution  is  the  seat  of  the  gift  for  mathematics,  therefore,  of 
highly  developed  faculties  of  intelligence. 

Goltz,  Munk  and  Grossglich,^^  and  also  Monakow,^^  dispute 
all  relations  between  the  forebrain  and  intelligence. 

From  the  gross  anatomical  standpoint,  it  is  not  wise  to 
draw-  valid  conclusions  in  regard  to  mental  qualities  of  an 
individual  from  the  external  appearance  of  his  brain  alone.  It 
may  be  that  with  the  artistic,  somewhat  complex  form  of  the 
convolutions,  as  shown  in  those  belonging  to  the  European 
races,  can  be  contrasted  the  simple  arrangement  of  the  convolu- 
tions in  the  forebrain,  which  are  found  frequently,  or  even  as 
a  rule,  in  the  native  savages  of  Australia  and  Africa.  So  it  is 
stated  by  Thurnum^"*  that  the  relation  of  the  brain  of  the  Aus- 
tralian, of  whose  low  intelligence  we  have  already  spoken  in 


'^  D.  Hansemann,  Ueber  das  Gehirn  von  Hermann  von  Helmholtz.    Zeit- 
schrift  fiir  Psych,  und  Physiologie  der  Sinnesorgane,  xx,  1,  1899. 

8  Retzius,  Biologische  Untersuchungen,  viii  u.  ix. 

9  Dwight,  Remarks  on  the  Brain,  Proceed,  of  the  American  Academy 
of  Arts  and  Science,  1878,  p.  210. 

10  R,  Wagner,  Abhandlungen  der  K.  Gesellschaft  der  Wissenschaften  zu 
Gottingen,  ix,  p.  59.    Gottingen,  1861. 

11  Moebius,  Die  Anlage  zur  Mathematik.    Leipzig,  1902. 

12  Grossglich,  Archiv  fiir  Anatomic  und  Physiologie,  1895,  S.  98. 

13  Monakovi?,  /.  c. 

1^  Thurnum,  Journal  of  Mental  Science,  April,  1866. 


246  Human  Intelligence. 


this  book,  to  the  brain  of  the  European  is  Hke  85:  100.  It 
was  also  estabhshed  by  Rolleston^^  that  the  brain  weight  of  the 
European  was  49  ounces,  whereas  that  of  the  Austrahan  was 
only  44.3  ounces.  In  women  the  brain  weight  is  lower  than 
in  men,  the  difference  being  approximated  at  100  Gm.,  or  more, 
but  whether  this  will  remain  the  same  during  the  course  of  cen- 
turies is,  considering  what  has  been  discussed  in  Chapter  XII, 
not  quite  certain.  We  have  set  there  the  intelligence  of  women 
in  many  cases  very  near  to  that  of  the  child.  It  may  be  interest- 
ing to  mention  that  the  brain  weight  of  women  scientists  may  be 
somewhat  greater;  the  brain  of  Kowalewska  weighed  1360  Gm., 
whereas  she  was,  at  the  same  time,  of  small,  delicate  build.  The 
heaviest  brain  ever  observed  was  found  by  Van  Valsem^^  in  an 
idiot,  it  weighing  2800  Gm. ;  and  this  shows  most  clearly  how 
improper  it  is  to  draw  conclusions  from  the  weight  of  the  brain. 
In  examining  the  skull  and  brain  of  highly  intellectual  men, 
as,  for  instance,  of  the  great  composers  and  artists,  there  can  be 
frequently  seen  a  very  wide  and  greatly  developed  forehead. 
Particularly  great  Is  the  contrast  with  the  low  forehead  of  idiots. 
In  the  latter  the  development  of  the  forebrain  is  not  rarely 
deficient,  but  surely  not  always  so.  In  grave  mental  disease  we 
often  see  an  atrophy  of  the  convolutions  in  that  region ;  it  would, 
however,  be  wrong  to  lay  down  any  conclusive  rules.  We  can 
sometimes  find  in  idiots,  as  I  have  seen  myself,  beautifully 
developed  brain-convolutions  in  various  regions.  For  instance, 
Docent  Van  Valkenburgh  showed  me  in  the  Central  Institute  for 
Brain  Investigations,  in  Amsterdam,  the  brain  of  an  adult,  born 
blind, — an  ophthalmic  idiot.  On  first  impression  we  should 
have  expected  to  find  just  here  grave  changes  on  the  centers  of 
vision  in  the  occipital  lobe,  but  there  was  nothing  of  that  kind. 
It  was  a  beautifully  developed  brain,  with  the  cuneus,  gyrus  lin- 


15  Rolleston,   Description  of  the   Cerebral   Hemisphere   of   an  Adult 
Australian  Male.     London,  1879. 

16  Van  Valsem  und  Lemey,  Festschrift  von  der  Nederlandschen  Vereenig- 
ing  voor  Neurologie  en  Pspchiatrie,  1898. 


Scat  of  Thinking  Pozuer.  247 

gualis  and  fissura  calcarina  in  best  order.  Only  microscopically 
were  to  be  seen  in  these  parts  a  very  distinct  change  in  the  cells 
of  the  polymorphous  layer  (according  to  Brodmann)  made 
noticeable  by  the  white  stripe  of  Gennari. 

It  is  generally  unwise  to  lay  down  any  fixed  and  conclusive 
rules  in  medicine,  and  this  is  particularly  so  in  the  domain  of 
mental  diseases.  Here  the  words  "always"  or  "never"  can  find 
no  application. 

While  we  observe  no  macroscopic  changes  in  mental  dis- 
eases, we  find  microscopic  changes  so  much  more  frequently  if 
we  examine  the  various  regions  of  the  brain-cortex,  particularly 
the  forebrain.  In  favor  of  the  statement,  that  the  cortex  is  that 
part  of  the  brain  the  changes  in  which  most  often  cause  changes 
also  of  mental  faculties,  the  experiments  of  Flourens  also  testify. 
The  cortex  is,  therefore,  the  most  important  part  of  the  brain; 
it  is  the  seat  of  the  thinking  power ;  it  is  the  place  where  all  our 
thinking,  our  sensations,  our  feelings,  our  will,  our  memory,  all 
our  knowledge  is  localized.  Thomasius  Willis^  ^  declared 
the  cortex  to  be  the  seat  of  our  memory,  and  his  con- 
temporary, Swedenborgh,  located  the  brain-cortex  as  the  center 
whereto  the  impressions  produced  by  our  senses  are  conducted, 
and  from  which  impulses  of  the  will  are  sent  out  to  the  muscles ; 
and  this  was  based  upon  his  clinical  and  pathological-anatomical 
experience  in  cases  of  melancholia  and  epilepsy,  and  upon  experi- 
ments on  animals.  He  very  clearly  expounded  the  theory,  that 
the  cortex  is  the  seat  of  the  sensory  and  motor  activity  of  the 
soul :  "Substantia  enim  corticalis  est  ipsum  cerebrum  seu  sen- 
sorium  et  motorium  commune."^^  When,  therefore,  Professor 
Neuburger,  in  Vienna,  some  years  ago,  established  Sweden- 
borgh's  priority  in  regard  to  this  question,  he  rectified  an  old 
wrong.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that,  before  Meynert,  Hitzig,  and 
others,  Swedenborgh  was  the  first  to  localize  the  mental  activity 


I'i' Thomasius  Willis,  Cerebri  Anatomia,  Amsterdam,  1667,  p.  76. 
18  Emmanuel    Swedenborgh,    CEconomia    Regni   Animals,    Amstelodam, 
1671,  1672,  iii,  133. 


248  Human  Intelligence. 

in  the  forepart  of  the  brain.  About  loo  years  later,  in  the  year 
1759,  Caspar  Friedrich  Wolf  presented  the  same  theory  in  his 
doctorate  thesis. 

The  great  importance  of  the  cortex  is  also  shown  by  the 
fact  that,  according  to  the  investigations  of  Edinger,  in  animals 
manifesting  the  lowest  grade  of  intelligence,  the  cortex  is  not 
developed.  I  would  like,  again,  to  call  attention  here,  as  already 
done  in  Chapter  I,  to  the  most  particularly  rich  blood-supply  of 
the  brain-cortex,  and,  at  the  same  time,  repeat  that  only  the 
most  important  organs  and  parts  of  our  body  are  as  richly  sup- 
plied with  blood.  If,  in  examining  the  microscopic  structure 
of  this  cortex,  we  compare  the  gray  substance  of  it  with  the 
white  substance  of  the  medulla,  which  differ  from  one  another 
in  their  color,  we  see  from  the  arrangement  of  the  structural 
elements  that  the  cortex  forms  the  leading  part,  because  it  con- 
tains the  very  important  ganglia-cells,  while  the  medulla  serves 
more  for  conductive  purposes.  The  latter  consists  mainly  of 
centrifugal  fibers,  which  are  sent  out  by  the  cells  to  the  periphery 
for  innervation  of  the  muscles,  and  of  centripetal  fibers,  which 
conduct  the  various  impressions  upward  to  the  superior  tis- 
sues. Besides  that,  there  are  fibers  passing  which  connect 
both  hemispheres  with  one  another,  and  also  fibers  which  con- 
nect the  various  portions  of  the  cortex  with  one  another. 

The  gray  substance  is  consequently  the  thinking  part,  and, 
therefore,  it  contains  so  much  blood,  which  has  such  a  powerful 
effect  upon  its  function.  The  white  substance  is  onl}^  the 
executive  lower  office,  which  is  subordinate  to  the  former,  and 
as  such  an  organ  it  is  provided  with  a  very  small  amount  of  blood. 

According  to  Brodmann,  in  the  human  as  well  as  the  ani- 
mal brain-cortex  there  can  be  distinguished  six  layers,  with  a 
specially  characteristic  group  of  cells  in  each  layer.  The  nerve- 
cells  have  two  processes,  a  protoplasmic  process  and  an  axis 
cylinder  process,  both  of  which  serve  for  conduction.  They 
branch  out  like  the  branches  of  a  tree,  and  in  this  way  the  nerve- 
cells  come  in  contact  with  one  another.     Through  the  cells  are 


Seat  of  Thinking  Power.  249 

traversing  fibrils,  which  pass  over  to  the  other  cells,  through 
the  processes.  In  this  way  widely  distributed  connections  are 
established  which  serve  for  the  transmission  and  exchange  of 
impressions  from  one  neuron  to  another.  These  fine  fibrils, 
which  may  form  quite  a  considerable  network  within  the  cells 
themselves,  have  already  been  described  by  Max  Schultze,  but 
most  attention  has  been  given  to  them  and  to  their  significance 
by  Apathy^^  and  Bethe.^^  According  to  Ziegler,^!  they  play  a 
great  role  as  a  cytological  basis  for  our  memory,  and  all  other 
processes  of  thinking  in  general.  In  the  newborn,  and  also  in 
the  individuals  in  whom  certain  sense  centers  are  out  of  com- 
mission, as,  for  instance,  in  the  blind,  the  nerve-cells  can  be  seen 
to  be  more  closely  crowded  together,  and  the  processes  are  very 
little  or  hardly  developed.  The  excellent  investigations  of 
Michaelina  Stephanowska  on  newborn  mice  lead  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  processes  only  develop  under  influence  of  sensory 
impressions.  Ziegler  points  out  that  a  parallelism  seems  to  exist 
between  the  beginning  of  the  mental  activity  and  the  gradual 
development  of  the  neurons,  and  that  the  activity  of  the  organs 
of  sense  exercises  an  influence  upon  those  neurons  which  are  in 
a  state  of  development.  From  this  we  can  see  the  great  influ- 
ence which  the  sense  organs  and  the  use  of  them  have  upon  the 
development  of  our  intelligence,  to  which  subject  we  zvill  repeat- 
edly call  attention  in  this  book.  The  exceedingly  great  impor- 
tance of  these  nerve  processes  for  the  mental  activity  may  be 
seen  best  from  the  fact  that,  when  they  are  destroyed  or  when 
they  are  absent,  very  important  disturbances  of  the  intelligence. 


19  A.  Apathy,  Das  leitende  Element  des  Nervensystems.  Mitteilung  der 
Zoologischen  Station  zu  Neapel,  1897,  Bd.  xii, 

20  A.  Bethe,  Ueber  die  Primitivfibrillen  in  den  Ganglienzellen  von  Men- 
schen  und  anderen  Wirbeltieren.  Morpholog.  Arbeiten,  herausgegeben 
Schwalbe,  1898,  Bd.  viii.  Derselbe,  Ueber  die  Neurofibrillen  in  den  Ganglien- 
zellen von  Wirbeltieren  und  ihre  Beziehungen  zu  den  Golginetzen.  Archiv 
fur  mikroskopische  Anatomie,  1900,  Bd.  i,  164. 

21 H.  E.  Ziegler,  La  base  cytologique  de  I'instinct  et  de  la  memoire. 
Triavaux  de  laboratoire  de  I'lnstitut  Solvay,  publics  par  Paul  Heger,  1900, 
III,  i,  3,  S.  1. 


250  Human  Intelligence. 


particularly  of  the  memory,  take  place.  This  interruption  of 
communications  between  the  neurons  can  be  observed  in  the 
grave  forms  of  mental  disturbances,  particularly  in  progressive 
paralysis.  Of  great  interest,  for  us,  is  the  fact  that,  according 
to  the  investigations  of  Demoor^^  and  Miss  Stephanowska,^^  in 
the  Solvay  Institution  at  Brussels,  changes  in  these  processes 
(pearl-like  arrangement,  moniliform  appearance)  have  been 
caused  by  various  sleep-producing  remedies,  which  indeed,  tem- 
porarily at  least,  limit  or  reduce  the  mental  activity,  but  after 
their  prolonged  use  these  changes  often  become  permanent.  All 
the  pyriform  appendages,  which  are  found  in  large  number  in  all 
protoplasmic  ramifications  in  the  normal  animal,  may  also  dis- 
appear in  course  of  these  changes. 

Moreover,  it  has  been  shown  by  Querton^*  that,  in  animals 
sleeping  during  the  winter,  the  neurons  during  this  sleep  pre- 
sent pearly,  string-like  changes.  All  this  indicates  the  plasticity 
of  the  nerve-cells,  and  proves  that  plastic  impressions  are  pro- 
duced in  them  by  various  impulses.  According  to  Ziegler,  this 
plasticity  plays  a  great  role  in  memory  fixation,  of  which  we 
will  speak  later. 

When  we  compare  the  brain-cortex  of  man  with  that  of 
animals,  it  strikes  us  that  in  the  latter  the  cells  are  crowded 
more  closely  together,  and  are  in  greater  abundance.  In  the 
human  brain-cortex  we  see  fewer  cells  with  large  interspaces 
between  them,  but  in  their  place  we  find  a  network  of  fine  fibrils, 
which  just  serve  the  processes  of  linking  together  the  thoughts, 
the  association  processes.  Just  as  we  recognize  the  existence  of 
high  culture  and  industry  in  a  State,  by  its  extended  network  of 
telephone  wires,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  cities  of  the  United 
States,  so  it  is  here.     The  cells  which  are  most  important  for 


22  J.    Demoor,    La    plasticite    morphologique    des    neurones    cerebraux. 
Travaux  de  laboratoire  de  I'lnstitut  Solvay.     Bruxelles,  1896,  t.  i. 

23  M.  Stephanowska,  Les  appendices  terminaux  des  dendrites  cerebraux. 
Ibid.,  1897,  t.  ii. 

24  L.   Querton,  Le  sommeil  hibernal  et  les  modifications  des  neurons 
Cerebraux.    Ihid.,  1898,  t.  ii. 


Seat  of  Thinking  Pozver.  251 

the  higher  mental  faculties  are,  according  to  Golgi  and  Cajal,-^ 
those  which  have  processes  with  a  rich  supply  of  very  fine 
arborizations.  According  to  Golgi^^  they  pierce  through  to  the 
richly  supplied  blood-surface  of  the  brain,  and  there  enter  anas- 
tomoses with  the  blood-vessels.  While  this  statement  is  not  cor- 
rect, it  is,  however,  certain  that  the  nerve-cells  are  related  with 
the  blood-vessels  by  means  of  the  supporting  tissue,  so  that  a 
great  role  must  be  attributed  to  the  conditions  of  the  blood-cir- 
culation, and  it  must  have  a  very  great  effect.  The  ability  to 
concentrate  attention  on  one  point,  the  foundation  of  memory, 
at  any  rate,  depends  so  much  upon  the  quantity  of  blood  avail- 
able to  the  cells,  that  too  much  or  too  little  of  it  may  cause  dis- 
turbance. 

These  important  cells  of  Golgi  and  Cajal  are,  according  to 
Brodmann,  found  in  large  numbers 'in  the  second  and  third  layers 
of  the  brain-cortex,  the  importance  of  which  has  already  been 
pointed  out  by  Bolton.  The  latter  has  found,  by  micrometric 
measurements,  that  the  second  layer,  which  is  generally  very 
deep,  shows  a  subnormal  depth  in  various  mental  diseases.  The 
cells  here  were  also  reduced  in  number,  and  changed  in  their 
structures.  As  a  whole,  the  second  layer  is  very  much  thinned.^''^ 
In  the  following,  the  second  lower  layers,  in  the  ganglionic 
layers,  we  find  first  the  smaller  and  farther  down  the  larger 
triangular  pyramidal  cells.  These  play  the  greatest  part  in 
transmitting  the  motor  impulses  to  the  periphery.  They  con- 
tinue downward  in  the  projection  fibers,  which  go  to  motor 
nuclei,  then  enter  the  spinal  cord,  and  from  there  go  to  the 
muscles. 

Sensory  impressions  coming  from  the  periphery  penetrate 
centripetally  from  below  upward  into  the  various  layers,  pierce 
these,  and  are  transferred  to  the  association  cells,  where  they 


25  Santiago  Ramon  y  Cajal,  La  textura  del  systema  nervioso  del  hombre 
y  de  los  vertebrados.    Madrid,  1899. 

2C  Golgi,  Der  feinere  Bau  des  zentralen  und  peripheren  Nervensystems, 
1894. 

27  Bolton,  Brain,  1910. 


2"^!  Human  Intelligence. 


receive,  so  to  speak,  spiritual  recognition,  and  are  assorted 
according  to  their  significance.  Such  a  sense  perception  meets 
on  its  way  an  always  increasing  number  of  neurons,  and  when 
we  compare  the  fine  threads  which  represent  these  running 
upward — afferent,  inward  leading  fibers, — with  those  running 
downward — efferent,  outward  leading  fibers, — like  telephone 
wires, — it  is  actually  the  same  as  if  telephone  connection  is  set  in 
motion  by  electricity  at  the  telephone  central  station.  This 
current  is  transmitted  by  the  fibrils  of  the  neurons  (neurozyme 
of  Forel  and  neurokinesis  of  Paul  Heger),  and  so  communicated 
to  the  various  centers.  The  brain-cortex,  the  seat  of  our  mental 
and  spiritual  activity,  may,  therefore,  be  compared  with  a  tele- 
phone central,  which  receives  a  communication,  transmits  the 
same,  and  sends  forward  the  received  orders  to  the  subscribers. 
The  brain  is,  therefore,  to  use  Heger's  expression,  somewhat 
like  a  registrar,  a  commutation  apparatus,  and  also  a  transformer. 
Something  like  electric  currents,  therefore,  are  passing  here  in 
various  directions.  If,  by  some  disease  of  the  brain,  a  disturb- 
ance occurs,  as  happens,  for  instance,  through  hemorrhage  in  the 
cortex,  and  a  destruction  of  the  tissue,  as  in  apoplexy,  takes 
place,  then  the  out-stations  are  cut  off  from  the  main  central  until 
the  disturbance  is  repaired,  and  the  various  centers  have  taken  up 
their  activity  again. 

The  various  regions  of  the  cortex  serve  for  different  sense 
perceptions;  the  occipital  lobe  for  the  sight,  the  temporal  lobe 
for  the  hearing,  the  parietal  lobe  for  touch.  The  experiments 
of  Munk,  Ferrier,  and  others  have  shown  that  the  occipital  lobe, 
particularly  its  inferior  median  part  and  the  cuneus  with  the 
fissura  calcarina,  play  a  great  role  in  the  action  of  the  sight. 
Dogs  in  which  Munk  had  cut  away  these  parts  on  both  sides 
became  sense  blind.  In  such  cases,  pictures  are  taken  by  the 
retina,  but  they  are  not  recognized.  No  matter  how  much 
afraid  the  dog  was  of  it  before,  he  does  not  fear  the  whip  any 
more.  He  sees  it,  but  does  not  recognize  its  significance,  and 
even  when  a  burning  object  is  brought  before  his  eyes  he  does 


Seat  of  Thinking  Power.  253 

not  shrink  from  it.  Some  high-grade  idiots  show  the  same 
indifference.  In  the  bhnd,  as  Donaldson^^  found  in  the  well- 
known  case  of  Laura  Bridgman,  an  atrophy  of  the  cuneus  is 
found,  as  a  rule,  but  not  always,  as  already  mentioned.  There 
exist  in  the  cortex  a  number  of  fields,  which  control  the  motor 
mechanism  and  the  sensory  perceptions.  Besides  these  motor  and 
sensory  fields,  there  are  supposed  to  be,  according  to  Flechsig, 
Campbell,  Bolton,  and  others,  still  other  association  fields. 
Flechsig  came  to  this  conclusion  through  his  observation  on  the 
development  of  medullated  nerve-fibers,  which  go  to  the  cortex. 
He  established  the  fact  that  first  the  fibers  going  to  the  sensory 
fields  receive  their  medullary  sheath,  and  the  fibers  going  to  the 
association  fields  follow  only  later.  In  the  embryo  the  latter 
have  no  projection  fibers;  they  have,  therefore,  no  connection 
or  transmission  downward,  but  are  only  connected  with  one 
another,  as  well  as  with  the  sensory  and  motor  fields  in  the 
cortex. 

According  to  Flechsig,  the  various  impressions  which  are 
transferred  to  us  by  the  senses  are  conducted  to  the  association 
fields  for  assortment,  and  there  the  complex  conceptions  take 
their  origin.  The  sensory  centers  are  connected  with  them  by 
association  fibers.  According  to  Flechsig,  after  permanent 
changes  had  taken  place  in  the  netlike  arrangement  of  cells  and 
fibers,  the  experiences  which  we  have  had  and  our  recollections 
are  stored  up  in  these  association  fields.  He  distinguished  the 
following  main  fields: — 

1.  Anterior  area  in  the  frontal  lobe  for  bodily  sensations, 
effects,  etc, ;  here  the  ego  and  the  impulses  would  be  localized. 

2.  Middle  area  on  the  median  border  of  the  Isle  of  Reil, 
for  the  mental  activity. 

'3.  Posterior  area  located  in  the  occipital  and  in  temporal 
lobe,  for  the  experience  gained  by  the  aid  of  the  organs  of  sight 
and  hearing. 


28  Donaldson,  American  Journal  of  Physiology,  1892. 


254  Human  Intelligence. 


The  latter  area  is  supposed  to  be  particularly  developed  in 
individuals  having  great  talent  for  music,  etc.  According  to 
CampbelP^  the  cortex  of  the  precentral  convolution  serves  for 
motor  impulses;  the  sensations  of  the  body  he  localized  in  the 
postcentral  convolution. 

Bolton  engaged  himself  for  fourteen  years  w^ith  the  ques- 
tion of  localizations,  and,  based  upon  his  studies,  he  attributes 
the  greatest  importance  to  the  outermost  end  of  the  precentral 
lobe.  This  spot  is  supposed  to  serve  the  most  advanced  proc- 
esses of  associations.  As  an  argument  for  the  great  importance 
of  this  spot,  he  also  makes  use  of  the  fact  that  in  that  locality 
the  cortex  develops  last.  According  to  Bolton,  the  pre-central 
lobe  serves  for  voluntary  linking  of  thoughts.  In  the  grave 
forms  of  mental  diseases,  in  which  the  influence  of  the  will  upon 
the  associations  of  thoughts  is  lost  or  diminished,  it  is  just  in 
that  location  where  changes  are  found. 

Taking  into  consideration  all  that  has  been  brought  for- 
ward so  far,  I  would  now  like  to  make  an  attempt  to  describe, 
in  a  practical  way,  the  process  of  thinking  in  the  frog  and  in 
man.  When,  for  instance,  a  swimming  frog  happens  to  meet 
a  rose  which  fell  into  the  water,  the  rays  of  it  get  to  the  retina; 
from  there  they  get  to  the  optic  nerve,  and  then  to  the  corpora 
geniculata,  and  finally  to  the  tectum  opticum.  The  frog  sees  the 
rose,  but  as  it  does  not  signify  to  him  anything  eatable,  he 
passes  it  quietly  by.  When,  however,  a  man  passes  by  a  garden, 
and  he  sees  there  at  the  fence  a  beautiful  rose,  a  picture  of  it  is 
formed  on  the  retina ;  this  is  transmitted  farther  by  the  processes 
of  the  nerve-cells  of  the  retina  (we  may  justly  consider  the 
fibers  of  the  optic  nerve  as  such)  through  the  optic  nerves,  and 
then  farther  to  the  corpora  geniculata,  and  still  farther  by  the 
visual  radiations  to  the  cortex  of  the  occipital  lobe,  where  it 
becomes  fixed  in  the  memory.  Now,  after  this  sense-perception 
has  been  transmitted  farther  from  the  occipital  lobe  to  the  vari- 

29  Campbell,  Histological  Studies  on  Localizations  of  Cerebral  Function. 
Cambridge,  1905. 


Seat  of  Thinking  Power.  255 

ous  brain-centers,  where  the  rose  becomes  appreciated  in  regard 
to  its  general  appearance,  its  color,  its  perfume,  etc.,  man,  who 
loves  nature  and  its  wonders,  does  not  stop  at  that.  A  great 
number  of  pictures  of  roses  which  he  has  seen  before  come  up 
in  his  mind,  and  comparisons  are  made  in  regard  to  their  size, 
their  color,  their  perfume,  etc. ;  in  other  words,  the  man  thinks. 
If  instead  of  a  rose  the  frog  should  happen  to  see  a  fly, 
he  would  not  pass  by  it  without  having  some  feeling.  He  would 
open  his  mouth,  catch  the  fly,  and  swallow  it.  This  is,  however, 
with  him  not  a  process  of  thinking;  he  is  not  able  to  think, 
because  he  has  no  brain-cortex.  His  action  takes  place  without 
the  aid  of  the  cortex ;  it  is,  therefore,  subcortical ;  it  is  simply  a 
reflex  process,  the  same  as  in  man;  the  animal  processes  are 
independent  of  thinking.  When,  however,  it  occurs  that  at  a 
dinner,  while  a  toast  was  being  delivered,  one  of  the  guests  has 
a  roasted  goose  set  before  him,  he  would  not  immediately 
attempt  to  eat  it,  because  as  a  thinking,  cultured  man  he  would 
be  influenced  by  the  laws  of  convention.  The  thought  which 
was  dictated  to  him  by  observation  of  good  manners  would 
induce  him  to  refrain  from  eating  until  the  speech  was  com- 
pleted. Only  the  idiot,  or  the  hopelessly  insane,  upon  whom  no 
interceptions  act,  whose  actions  are  done  without  thinking, 
would  be  guilty  of  such  conduct ;  we,  who  live  in  society  and 
are  thinking  men,  will  submit  to  the  generally  established  reg- 
ulations of  good  custom,  because  a  little  thought  in  this  matter 
would  make  us  realize  the  folly  of  not  taking  them  into  con- 
sideration. 


CHAPTER    XXXI. 
Rational  Thinking. 

In  general  our  thinking  is  stimulated  by  various  impres- 
sions, which  act  upon  our  sense-organs  at  the  time,  or  have 
acted  on  them  some  time  before,  and  have  reached  our  con- 
sciousness. As  long  as  we  are  awake  such  impressions  rush 
upon  our  sense-organs  from  all  sides,  but  when  due  to  external 
conditions,  such  as,  for  instance,  in  a  dark  and  perfectly  noise- 
proof room,  impressions  are  not  perceived  any  more,  and  no 
sensory  stimuli  otherwise  act  upon  us,  the  wakeful  condition 
passes  into  one  of  sleep.  The  conscious  thinking  then  ceases, 
but  not  the  subconscious  one,  because  dreams  are  also  conditions 
similar  to  those  of  thinking;  only  the  logical  consecutiveness  of 
thoughts,  their  mutual  connection,  is,  as  a  rule,  absent.  This 
kind  of  thinking  may  also  be  caused  by  sensory  impressions,  but 
these  do  not  act,  however,  as  a  rule,  upon  our  organs  of  sight 
and  hearing,  from  outside,  as  they  cannot  be  perceived  during 
a  deep  sleep,  but  are  caused  by  various  conditions  in  the  internal 
organs,  as,  for  instance,  by  an  overloaded  stomach  or  by  sexual 
glands  overfilled  with  secretion  due  to  sexual  abstinence.  But, 
also  while  awake,  such  appearance  of  various  thoughts,  such 
dreaming  may  take  place;  in  those  well  mentally  this  is  rarely 
the  case,  except  probably  before  falling  asleep  during  the  day  or 
night.  Much  more  is  this  disconnected,  confused  thinking  the 
case  in  individuals  deprived  of  their  minds.  This  wandering 
and  confused  thinking  may  be  recognized,  not  only  by  their  acts, 
but  also  by  the  speech  and  writing  of  the  victims.  Our  speech 
is  nothing  else  but  our  thoughts  expressed  by  sounds,  and  our 
writing,  in  like  manner,  expressed  by  written  characters.  Every 
man's  manner  of  thinking  may  be  recognized  from  his  way  of 
speaking  and  his  writing,  unless  we  accept  the  limitation,  in 
regard  to  speaking,  given  by  the  clever  but  very  vicious  Talley- 
(256) 


'Rational  Thinking.  257 


rand,  that  the  purpose  of  speech  is  to  conceal  the  thoughts. 
A  normal,  natural  man,  particularly  when  he  is  not  under  the 
social  restraint  of  culture,  is  very  plain  spoken,  and  the  same  is 
true  of  children  and  fools,  but  when  the  cultured  man  glosses 
over  his  thoughts  with  his  speech  ever  so  much,  one  who 
understands  human  nature  can  very  well  discern  his  innermost 
thoughts  from  the  way  he  speaks.  Man  expresses  also  his  man- 
ner of  thinking  in  his  writing,  and  this  has  even  led  to  the 
development  of  a  new  science  of  graphology,  which  attempts  to 
recognize  a  man's  character  from  his  penmanship.  The  various 
kinds  of  mental  deviations  also  lend  something  characteristic  to 
the  manner  of  writing,  so  that  certain  mental  diseases,  such 
as  paralysis,  may  be  recognized  by  the  manner  of  writing,  or, 
in  case  of  painters,  by  their  drawings  and  pictures.  In  the 
manner  of  drawing  and  in  the  presentation  of  a  picture  is  dis- 
closed the  way  of  thinking  of  the  individual  painters.  Just  as 
every  man  thinks  differently,  depending  on  the  pictures  pre- 
sented to  him  by  the  perceptions  of  his  sense  organs,  so  would 
the  paintings  of  the  same  subject,  by  different  artists,  appear 
entirely  different,  depending  on  the  conception  of  the  artist  and 
his  peculiar  gifts  of  intelligence  and  imagination.  Mentally  dis- 
eased artists  betray  plainly  the  signs  of  their  insanity  by  the 
grotesqueness  of  their  drawings  and  paintings,  and  the  same  is 
true  in  regard  to  writers.  This,  however,  has  not  prevented  such 
productions  from  becoming  famous,  for  instance,  Greco  or 
"Zarathustra"  of  Nietzsche,  who,  notwithstanding  the  signs  of 
insanity,  gained  great  distinction  in  some  places.  In  making  a 
drawing  or  a  picture,  the  artist  must  reproduce  all  his  thoughts, 
which  means  himself,  in  a  like  manner  to  a  man  when  he  speaks 
or  writes,  but  he  can  present  the  picture  of  an  object  only  as 
he  saw  and  understood  it,  and  herein  is  manifested  the  pecu- 
liarities of  his  way  of  thinking.  The  artist  must  present  it  in 
dimensions  and  colors,  and  with  the  details,  which  correspond 
to  the  actual  object.  In  case  he  is  not  able  to  observe  the  pro- 
portions of  things,  as  happens  in  so  many  nervous  people,  in 

17 


258  Human  Intelligence. 


neurasthenics  and  hysteria,  it  would  be  manifested  in  his  man- 
ner of  drawing  and  painting  by  exaggeration.  Behind  the  exag- 
gerations, misrepresentations  of  Nature  in  art  by  secessionists, 
impressionists,  futurists,  and  cubists,  the  overproductions  on 
the  stage  and  in  many  ''cabarettes"  is  hidden  the  condition  of 
degeneration.  This  overdoing  seems  to  be  also  getting  a  foot- 
hold in  fashions  and  in  the  art  of  dancing.  All  these  exaggera- 
tions and  extravagances,  true  crimes  against  good  taste,  often 
betray  grave  injuries  of  the  nervous  system  and  of  the  mental 
state,  except  when  it  is  used  as  a  business  trick,  to  get  as  much 
money  out  of  it  as  possible;  and,  in  such  a  case,  it  is  simply  to 
be  condemned. 

These  confusions  in  taste  are  in  the  same  relation  to  the 
more  gentle  and  refined  taste  of  our  progenitors  (  for  example 
in  the  eighteenth  century),  as  is  the  sliding  dance  of  the  present 
day  to  the  graceful  minuet  of  those  days.  The  good  taste  of  a 
man  also  depends  upon  his  intelligence. 

Good  taste  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  correct  estima- 
tion of  all  proportions.  In  dressing,  for  instance,  it  manifests 
itself  by  simplicity,  refinement  and  avoidance  of  all  exaggera- 
tion. The  latter  we  find  only  in  people  wdth  little  intelligence, 
as,  for  instance,  in  those  who,  through  fortune,  became  sud- 
denly rich,  in  "nouveau  riches,"  who  may  be  easily  recognized 
by  their  lack  of  taste  in  dressing;  and  still  less  taste  in  the 
planning  and  arrangement  of  their  houses  and  villas.  Those  of 
a  low  grade  of  intelligence  dress  in  very  glaring  colors;  like 
idiots,  they  are  attracted  by  the  dazzling  red  colors.  The  best 
taste  in  dress  and  in  manners  is  shown  by  people  of  high  intelli- 
gence, and  no  one  disputes  the  fact  that  the  English  and  the 
Americans  are  the  best-dressed  people;  in  their  mode  of  thinking, 
imagination  and  good  judgment  are  paired  together  to  complete  a 
successful  combination.  If  we  designate  good  taste  as  the  putting 
the  right  scale  on  all  dimensions,  as  proper  selection  of  the  right 
colors  and  shadings,  then  lack  of  taste  manifests  itself,  on  the 
other  hand,  by  wrong  scaling  of  space  and  size,  proportions,  and 


Rational  Thinking.  259 


faulty  and  awkward  selection  of  colors.  This  is  all  caused  by 
lack  of  or  wrong  development  of  the  senses,  by  want  of  exercis- 
ing the  senses,  w^hich  we  consider  as  necessary  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  intelligence.  A  good  taste,  indeed,  presupposes  an 
intelligence  and  the  right  use  of  our  senses.  We  are,  therefore, 
able  to  recognize  an  intelligent  man  by  his  external  appearance. 

The  sound,  rational,  human  mind,  and  real  art,  look  only 
for  what  is  natural  in  all  things;  a  green  sky  and  blue  grass 
could  never  be  perceived  by  the  former,  and  never  presented  by 
the  latter.  Any  object,  for  example,  a  scene,  a  landscape,  may 
be  presented  by  a  painter  according  to  his  own  judgment,  either 
as  absolute,  realistic,  therefore  perfectly  corresponding  to  the 
true  nature  of  the  object,  or  it  may  be  presented  idealistically, 
perceived  with  a  rosy  inspiration,  and  I  express,  I  believe,  the 
spirit  of  the  majority,  when  I  assume  this  to  be  the  more  sym- 
pathetic way,  but  the  real  limitations,  the  true  colors,  the  true 
measurements  must  be  kept.  On  this  last  point,  observing  the 
right  scale,  I  would  like  to  lay  particular  stress.  The  normal, 
soberly  and  rationally  thinking  man  would  put  the  right  scale 
on  everything;  as  soon,  however,  as  there  is  a  deviation  from 
the  normal  way  of  thinking  this  becomes  lost  in  regard  to 
body  as  well  as  to  mind.  Lombroso  mentions  a  case  of  a 
paralytic  artist  who,  in  his  drawings,  presented  everything  on 
an  extraordinarily  large  scale ;  human  heads  reached  to  heaven, 
while  the  legs  were  still  on  earth.  These  extraordinarily  large 
measurements  for  the  body  are  also  reflected  in  the  mental 
process  of  the  paralytic.  First  of  all,  they  have  a  most  exag- 
gerated opinion  of  their  own  immense  importance.  They  own 
countless  millions;  are  able  to  pay  all  the  debts  of  the  world; 
consider  themselves  as  the  most  handsome  men,  endowed  with 
greatest  wisdom. 

We  thus  clearly  see  how  an  exaggerated  idea  in  the  meas- 
urements of  the  body  leads  to  the  same  in  regard  to  the  mind. 
Similar  conditions  we  see  in  one  of  the  most  frequent  mental 
diseases,  in  dementia  prsecox.     When  we  look  at  the  drawings 


260  Human  Intelligence. 


made  by  such  patients,  as,  for  instance,  in  a  case  described  by 
Kraepelin  in  his  "Handbook  of  Psychiatry,"^  we  observe  that 
all  dimensions  are  distorted,  everything  crooked  and  uneven; 
and  the  same  is  reflected  in  their  way  of  thinking.  Anyone 
who  is  not  able  to  measure  things  with  his  eyes,  is  not  able  to 
do  it  with  his  mind.  The  plainest  and  most  instructive  example 
in  this  respect  is  the  high-grade  idiot.  He  lacks  any  perception 
of  physical  measurement,  such  as  size  and  space;  he  is  not  able 
to  think  about  anything  or  to  form  any  idea  about  anything  at 
all.  With  this,  place  for  contrast  the  intelligent  man  who 
possesses  the  right  eye  measurement  for  everything.  To  any- 
one who  stands  at  the  rudder  of  a  ship,  without  having  a  fine, 
fixed  eye  measurement,  and  without  being  able  to  estimate  the 
distances  of  various  objects  and  their  relation  to  one  another 
in  the  space,  it  may  easily  happen  that  his  ship  would  be  wrecked 
in  a  narrow  passageway.  If,  however,  one  is  a  capable  pilot, 
who  is  able  to  estimate  to  a  very  fine  degree  the  proper  space 
relations  and  the  right  proportion  of  the  objects,  he  would 
always  be  revealed  as  an  intelligent  man.  What  is  true  of  speech 
and  writing  is  also  true  of  thinking,  and  the  intelligence  of  a 
man  may  be  concluded  from  the  way  he  acts.  An  intelligent 
man  would  also  be  easily  recognized  from  the  way  he  manages 
his  own  lifeboat.  He  leads  it  safely  away  from  all  the  cliffs, 
whereas  the  fool  would  pilot  his  boat  to  destruction  upon  the 
rocks.  Every  man's  future  is  determined  by  his  acts,  and  every- 
one of  us  is  the  pilot  of  his  own  fate.  He  would  succeed  in  life 
best  who  is  consistent  in  all  his  acts,  and  keeps  the  proper 
measure  in  everything. 

As  this  latter  is  indispensable  for  correct  and  rational  think- 
ing, we  would  do  well  to  educate  a  man  with  this  end  in  view. 
Therefore  we  should  instruct  the  child  to  learn  to  estimate  meas- 
urements by  sight  and  feeling. 

As  we  have  said  before,  thinking  means  linking  together 
of    thoughts,    but    every    thought    corresponds    to    a    picture 

1  Kraepelin,  Psychiatric,  II  Teil,  S.  733.    Leipzig,  1913. 


Rational  Thinking.  261 


of  an  object  which  we  have  perceived.  If  we  want  to  think 
correctly  we  must  have  a  proper  picture  of  every  object;  there- 
fore, also  a  proper  perception;  and  that  means  to  say  we  must 
see  distinctly  and  learn  to  fix  all  details  in  their  true  size  and 
proportions.  Otherwise,  we  get  a  false  picture,  false  percep- 
tions and  thoughts,  and,  in  consequence  of  it,  also  an  incorrect, 
false  train  of  thoughts.  It  is  well  understood  that  a  correct 
view  and  correct  measurement  are  only  possible  when  the  organs 
of  sight  and  the  respective  sense^centers  are  in  an  intact  condi- 
tion. As  soon  as  the  latter  are  undeveloped,  as  in  high-grade 
idiots,  or  are  pathologically  changed,  or  the  blood-supply  is  ren- 
dered difficult,  sense  impressions  cannot  at  all,  or  only  insuffi- 
ciently, be  received;  and,  on  account  of  false  perceptions  and 
thoughts,  wrong  thinking  takes  place.  A  similar  condition  is 
found  in  intoxication,  when  wrong  ideas  may  take  place  in 
regard  to  size  and  location  of  various  objects,  so  that  straight 
objects,  like  lamp-posts,  may  be  seen  as  crooked.  In  hysteria 
the  organs  of  sense  are  often  hypersensitive,  and  therefore  we 
find  here  also  exaggeration  of  perceptions.  Under  the  influence 
of  passion  something  similar  may  occur  in  otherwise  normal 
individuals. 

From  all  this  it  follows  that  a  systematic  education  and 
being  accustomed  tO]  sizing  things  up  in  the  right  way,  and  see- 
ing things  in  the  right  light,  from,  childhood  up,  are  of  greatest 
advantage  for  intelligence,  and  for  correct  rational  thinking. 
It  is,  therefore,  appropriate,  by  means  of  special  exercises  for 
the  respective  senses  tO'  develop  the  sight,  feeling,  and  also  the 
hearing  in  children,  between  5  and  7  years  of  age.  Of  the  impor- 
tance of  such  sensory  exercises  we  will  speak  later  in  detail,  and 
will  also  mention  there  the  Montessori  games.  In  the  latter  the 
children  get  a  game  in  which  they  have  to  measure  the  size  of 
various  cubes,  sO'  that  the  largest  would  come  at  the  bottom  to 
serve  as  a  base,  and  the  following  become  smaller  and  smaller, 
until  a  tower  is  formed.  Properly,  our  mental  work  should  also 
be  builded  up  in  such  a  way,  so  that  the  most  solid  Conception, 


262  Human  Intelligence. 


the  picture  perfectly  corresponding  with  the  truth,  should  form 
the  safe  base,  which  would  make  a  perfectly  safe  foundation. 
Only  such  pictures  and  thoughts  should  be  used  in  building 
stones  which  correspond  to  the  truth  in  all  details.  In  other 
words,  exact  knowledge  should  form  the  foundation,  and  in  the 
selection  of  the  building  stones  we  should  be  guided  by  reason, 
which  accepts  only  that  which,  in  all  its  dimensions,  fits  into  the 
corresponding  joints  and  harmonizes  with  the  other  building 
material.  Only  when  it  becomes  impossible  to  make  a  further 
advance,  with  the  aid  of  our  knowledge  and  judgment,  and  the 
building  is  already  half  finished,  may  we  call  to  the  rescue  our 
imagination.  We  will  then  select  first  what  seems  to  us  prob- 
ahle,  and  should  that  not  be  sufficient,  we  will  use  such  argu- 
ments as  seem  to  us  possible  and  appropriate.  In  the  trend  of 
our  thoughts  we  must  proceed  to  our  conclusions,  from  the 
known,  perfectly  certain,  to  the  unknown.  Only  finally  may  we 
take  our  refuge  in  the  hypothesis;  first,  however,  we  must  test 
what  seems  to  us  credible  by  the  experiment,  and  only  when  this 
is  impossible  may  we  resort  to  the  hypothesis. 

In  solving  a  problem  we  can  also  proceed  to  follow  the  same 
picture  as  used  above  as  we  do  in  tearing  down  a  building.  We 
take  the  building  stones  apart,  examine  them  closely,  and  com- 
pare them  with  one  another  in  regard  to  their  resemblance.  Here 
also  we  have  to  deal  with  size  proportions,  and  we  learn  from  that 
how  important  for  logical  thinking  may  be  the  knowledge  of 
mathematics  and  geometry ;  of  course,  not  the  dry  knowledge  and 
memorizing  of  numbers,  but  mathematical  combination  ability. 
Here  it  is  also  necessary  to  have,  first  of  all,  keen  sight,  because 
in  a  given  problem,  something  unknown  to  us,  in  something  new, 
the  object  is  to  discover  with  a  keen  eye  one  or  two  essential 
characteristics,  so  that  we  can  search  in  our  store  of  memory 
pictures  whether  we  have  already  in  our  possession  something 
similar.  We  thus  must  attempt  to  discover  some  resemblance 
between  them,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  find  out  the  differential 
characteristic,  and  to  examine  where  the  differences  actually  lie, 


Rational  Thinking.  263 


and  by  what  they  are  caused.  In  this  way  we  may  be  almost 
certain  to  come  near  the  true  solution  of  the  problem. 

Now  to  recall  to  our  memory  again  a  picture  already  seen 
we  must  possess  a  good  memory;  this  is,  therefore,  of  great 
importance  for  rational  thinking.  Again,  a  great  store  of 
memorized  pictures  can  be  accumulated  only  through  extensive 
knowledge,  gained  by  much  reading  and  studying.  The  greater 
the  store  of  pictures  from  various  domains  we  have  at  our  com- 
mand, the  more  would  our  thinking  be  facilitated.  A  thorough 
school  education,  and,  first  of  all,  much  reading  can  supply  us 
with  an  extensive  knowledge.  Extensive  knowledge,  many-sided, 
is  an  essential  preliminary  requirement  for  rational  thinking; 
with  this,  however,  must  be  combined  the  ability  for  practical 
application  of  that  knowledge.  Intelligence  is  not  promoted  to 
any  extent  by  a  one-sided  theoretical  knowledge,  because  in  that 
instance  a  miscellaneous  collection  of  pictures,  perceptions  there- 
fore from  various  domains,  which  support  the  thinking,  does  not 
exist.  It  is,  therefore,  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  we  see  so 
often,  with  one-sidedness,  stupidity,  clumsiness  of  so  many  schol- 
ars, and  lack  of  "common  sense"  go  hand-in-hand.  Aside  from 
such  one-sidedness  we  find  very  frequently  criticism  above  the 
normal,  an  exceedingly  great  skepticism  and  lack  of  imagination. 
In  the  flight  after  higher  goals,  in  the  search  after  something 
entirely  new,  not  discovered  yet,  there  is  also  required,  besides  a 
sound  reasoning,  a  very  large  faculty  of  imagination,  which  is 
absolutely  necessary. 

Without  the  latter,  and  the  combining  ability  which  is  due 
to  it,  there  can  hardly  be  a  possibility  of  any  great  original  idea, 
of  any  original  discovery  or  invention,  of  any  kind  of  artistic 
creation.  With  the  gift  of  criticism  alone  it  is  possible,  by  very 
great  diligence,  to  produce,  to  supply  plenty  of  strictly  exact 
scientific  contributions ;  but  only  rarely  can  be  found  in  such  pro- 
ductions any  original  ideas,  anything  new.  Very  often  such  con- 
tributions are  sufficient  for  the  purpose  for  which  they  are 
written ;  it  is  even  possible  to  get  through  them  a  professorship  or 


264  Human  Intelligence. 


Geheimrat  title,  and  this  is  sometimes  easier  obtained  than  by 
bringing  forward  some  new,  great  ideas,  which  may  serve  as  an 
impulse  for  important  discoveries,  but  cannot  be  proven  by  exact 
experiments  at  the  time.  Our  era  does  not  honor  readily  great 
ideas  and  thoughts;  it  also  does  not  like  geniuses;  middlings 
often  get  much  farther.    O  golden  mediocrity ! 


CHAPTER   XXXII. 

External  and  Internal  Signs  of  High  and  Low 
Intelligence. 

An  intelligent  man  may,  as  a  rule,  be  distinguished  from 
an  idiot  by  his  external  appearance.  It  is  only  necessary  to  look 
over  a  collection  of  photographs  of  great  thinkers,  scientists  or 
artists,  and  compare  them  with  the  photographs  of  idiots.  In 
the  former  the  frequency  of  the  high  forehead  will  strike  us  first 
of  all.  Sometimes  the  size  is  even  above  normal,  as,  for  instance, 
in  Newton,  Walter  Scott,  and  others.  We  also  notice  a  well- 
formed  nose,  with  its  often  beautiful  curve.  Contrast  with  this, 
as  a  rule,  the  ugly,  often  grotesque  faces  of  idiots  with  their  low 
foreheads  and  outstanding  ears.  This  great  difference  may  pos- 
sibly be  attributed  to  the  condition  of  the  ductless  glands,  upon 
which  depend  not  only  the  growth,  nutrition  and  metabolism,  but 
also  .the  formation  of  the  brain,  and  structure  of  the  skeleton, 
including  the  bones  of  the  skull.  These  glands  are :  the  thyroid, 
the  sexual  glands,  the  hypophysis.  How  rhuch  the  form  of  the 
face  is  influenced  by'disease  of  the  latter  is  already  apparent  from 
the  prominent  lower  jaw  and  the  big,  broad  nose  in  acromeg- 
alics, but  when  thyroid  is  administered  it  can  often  be  observed 
that  the  nose  becomes  narrower  and  its  contour  becomes  finer. 
On  account  of  the  fact  that  these  glands  regulate  the  calcium  and 
phosphorus  metabolism,  the  teeth  cannot  develop  properly  when 
these  glands  are  diseased,  and  a  faulty,  step-like  form  of  the 
upper  jaw  is  the  result.  And  because  the  teeth  and  jaws  con- 
stitute the  main  skeleton  of  the  face,  the  latter,  in  the  idiot, 
assumes  a  peculiar  expression,  which  is  made  more  pronounced 
by  the  broad,  often  open  mouth.  There  are  found  sometimes 
idiots  who  have  a  normal,  sometimes  even  a  handsome  face,  as 
I  have  seen  in  some  girls — idiots  in  Dalldorf,  but  these  are  only 
rare  exceptions. 

(265) 


266  Human  Intelligence. 


In  view  of  the  fact  that  some  relation  exists  between  the 
construction  of  the  skeleton  and  the  expression  of  the  face, 
which  denotes  the  qualities  of  intelligence  and  the  spiritual  con- 
dition, and,  as  we  will  see  later,  the  inclinations  to  crime  (idiots 
show  indeed  very  often  similar  degenerative  changes  in  the  face), 
there  may  possibly  be  created  a  certain  base  for  a  scientific 
physiognomy.  Possibly  such  a  science  may  develop  in  the 
future,  on  a  more  scientific  foundation  than  at  present,  because 
we  have  now  something  tangible  in  the  established  fact  that  the 
thyroid  and  sexual  glands  have  undoubtedly  an  influence  upon 
the  calcium  and  phosphorus  metabolism,  and  consequently  also 
upon  the  external  formation  of  the  face.  At  the  time  of  Lavater 
these  relations  were  not  even  suspected,  and,  therefore,  his  obser- 
vations could  not  claim  to  be  scientific.  Moreover,  very  curious 
mistakes  have  been  made  sometimes  by  Lavater.  Once  there 
were  sent  to  him  pictures  of  two  individuals  for  an  expert  opin- 
ion in  regard  to  their  character,  to  be  judged  by  the  expression 
of  their  faces.  The  laconic  answer  was,  "Two  rascals!"  And 
who  were  these  rascals?  The  priest  and  the  judge  of  a  Swiss 
community,  well  known  for  their  honesty. 

An  idiot  may  often  be  recognized,  not  only  by  his  external 
appearance,  but  by  his  walk.  In  all  his  motions  he  is  awkward 
and  clumsy,  in  direct  contrast  to  the  dextrous  appearance  and 
cleverness  of  an  intelligent  man.  This  is,  in  the  feeble-minded 
and  idiots,  undoubtedly  due  to  a  certain  extent  to  an  imperfect 
development  of  the  sense  organs,  in  consequence  of  which  there 
is  an  imperfect  perceptive  faculty  for  correct  size  and  proportions 
of  things.  Whereas,  in  highly  intelligent  men,  and  still  more  so  in 
geniuses,  there  is  present  a  hypersensitiveness  which  reacts  on 
the  slightest  impulse,  we  see,  as  a  rule,  in  the  feeble-minded  and 
in  individuals  with  very  little  intelligence  a  hyposensitiveness  of 
the  sensory  organs,  so  that  their  attention  is  stirred  up  only  by 
strong  impulses.  This  is  the  reason  why  the  latter  have  such  en- 
thusiasm for  dazzling  red  colors,  for  noisy  music,  and  for  strong 
penetrating  perfumes.    This  is  often  a^  distinguishing  trait  also 


Signs  of  Intelligence,  267 

of  certain  classes  of  people  in  a  state  of  low  intelligence,  for 
example,  the  negroes,  but  it  may  also  be  found  sometimes  among 
individuals  of  so-called  good  society.  A  fine  taste  is  just  as 
much  a  sure  sign  of  a  high  intelligence  as  bad  taste  and  tactless- 
ness are  a  sign  of  low  intelligence,  even  if  found  in  men  of  learn- 
ing, as  is,  unforunately,  by  no  means  a  rare  occurrence.  I  am, 
moreover,  not  inclined  to  make  the  assertion  that  great  learning 
and  high  intelligence  go  hand-in-hand ;  there  are  many  one-sided 
learned  men  who  are  very  efficient  in  their  limited  domain,  but 
are  entirely  helpless  in  all  worldly  things,  undoubtedly  because 
of  the  neglect  in  the  course  of  their  education  to  develop  all  their 
organs  of  sense.  A  man  whose  outlook  is  narrow  sees  only  what 
is  nery  near ;  he  cannot  venture  too  far,  and  this  timidity  before 
the  unknown  makes  him  too  cautious.  Because  his  eyelids,  as  it 
were,  obstruct  his  sight,  and  his  horizon  is  a  very  limited  one,  he 
lacks  a  great  store  of  experience  in  forming  his  opinion,  and  he 
will  antagonize  a  priori  all  the  new  things  coming  up.  For 
fear  he  may  do  something  wrong  he  becomes  a  skeptic,  a  nega- 
tivist;  and  all  new  ideas  and  new  discoveries  must  reckon  with 
such  born  antagonists.  Often  new  ideas  and  discoveries  may  be 
thus  kept  dormant  for  many  decades,  to  the  loss  of  all  mankind, 
until  finally  the  sound,  broad-sighted,  human  mind  can  at  last  get 
the  upper  hand.  For  everything  else  we  may  look,  in  some  of 
these  learned  gentlemen,  except  for  a  natural,  healthy,  human 
mind, — for  common  sense !  They  have  spent  too  much  of  their 
time  sitting  in  their  study,  and  have  not  seen  the  wide  world ! 

The  feeble-minded  and  the  narrow-minded  men  are  recog- 
nized by  their  narrow  horizon.  Their  organ  of  sight  is  often  un- 
developed ;  it  may  often  be  of  congenital  origin,  and  in  course  of 
their  education  was  neglected,  and  did  not  receive  better  develop- 
ment. Just  recently  I  have  been  able  to  observe  a  gentleman, 
who  was  an  offspring  of  inbreeding  between  relatives ;  he  was 
afflicted  from  birth  with  a  weakness  of  sight,  so  that  he  was  able 
to  see  only  objects  which  were  near,  and  his  wife  (who  was 
under  my  treatment  for  gall-stones)  had  to  lead  him.    His  gen- 


268  Human  Intelligence. 


eral  intelligence  was  not  bad;  he  was  also  well  read,  but  all  his 
conclusive  judgments  were  just  as  narrow-minded  as  his  sight. 
In  a  mental  respect  he  had  just  as  small  a  horizon.  Of  course, 
even  the  blind  may  be  intelligent,  and  even  if  also  a  deaf-mute, 
as  we  see,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  Laura  Bridgman  and 
Helen  Keller ;  but  these  two  have  a  surprisingly  fine  feeling,  and 
besides  they  are  the  offspring  of  Americans.  At  least  one  of  the 
sense-organs  is  particularly  developed  in  the  blind,  the  sense  of 
touch.  The  blind  mathematician  Sanderson,  as  mentioned  by 
Abercrombie,  was  able  to  distinguish  among  a  number  of  Roman 
coins,  the  good  from  the  bad.  That  a  mentally  narrow  man 
sees  only  the  nearest  in  his  horizon  is  perfectly  natural.  He  does 
not  keep  in  view  the  essentials,  but  only  the  external  appearance 
of  things,  the  material  part;  he  differs  entirely  from  the  intelli- 
gent man,  who  looks  more  for  what  is  hidden  away,  and  tries  to 
find  in  everything  more  the  ideal  purpose  and  the  goal.  The 
materialistic  thinking  man  of  low  intelligence  is  only  interested 
in  the  pleasure  which  he  is  to  get  out  of  a  thing ;  everything  else, 
more  distant  reflections,  leave  him  cold.  Essential  points  in  any 
difficult  problem  can  only  be  caught  by  the  keen  eye  of  a  highly 
intelligent  man;  he  does  not  overlook  in  the  least;  he  does  not 
neglect  even  the  most  insignificant  details,  and  he  is,  therefore, 
able  to  make  epoch-making  discoveries  and  inventions,  just 
because  he  sees  things  which  have  remained  unnoticed  by  hun- 
dreds before  him.  A  genius  is  sometimes  able  to  think  for  hours 
over  apparently  insignificant  occurrences,  because  their  true  sig- 
nificance strikes  his  keen  eye  like  lightning.  In  this  way  came  the 
discovery  of  very  important  physical  laws,  which  made  the  names 
of  their  discoverers  immortal — Newton  by  the  sight  of  an  apple, 
Galilei  by  the  sight  of  a  lamp  swinging  in  the  church.  It  is  just 
this  ability  of  continuous  meditation,  persistent  concentration  of 
attention  on  one  point  which  marks  a  genius,  and  also'  the  iron 
diligence  connected  with  it  in  entire  contrast  to  the  idiotic  and 
feeble-minded,  as  well  as  to  mentally  narrow  men,  who,  as  a 
rule,  lack  this  quality,  being  more  inclined  to  laziness.    An3^hing 


Signs  of  Intelligence.  269 

that  does  not  bring  him  profit  immediately,  a  problem  which 
cannot  be  solved  at  once,  leaves  the  narrow-minded  disinterested. 

The  genius,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not  rest,  until  he,  like 
Archimedes,  can  exclaim  "Eureka!"  He  has  the  keen  glance  of 
an  eagle,  which  enables  him  to  compare  some  insignificant  char- 
acteristic of  one  object  with  that  of  another  far  distant  object, 
and  to  discover  some  surprising  relation  between  them,  whereby 
the  solution  of  some  difficult  problem  may  be  accomplished.  Of 
course,  in  this  case  a  large  faculty  of  imagination  is  required; 
but  the  genius  is  not  deficient  in  that.  It  is  in  him  a  necessary 
requisite.  Imagination  alone,  however,  does  not  make  a  genius ; 
insane  people  have  frequently  a  very  vivid  imagination;  chil- 
dren have  also;  but  both  lack  judgment.  The  combination  of 
these  two  is  what  makes  a  genius.  Even  narrow-minded  people 
are  not  deficient  in  judgment  by  itself.  We  find  it  often  in  one- 
sided scholars ;  but  these,  in  their  publications,  sailing  in  the  same 
waters  as  numberless  others,  are  treating  always  of  the  same 
subject,  without  ever  being  able  to  produce  any  new,  original 
idea.  They  do  not  dare  to  get  out  of  their  narrow  circle  of 
ideas ;  in  all  their  acts  they  are  timid  and  slow,  and  we  can  very 
well  repeat  of  them  the  words  of  the  poet,  "Whoever  does  not 
dare  to  climb  a  shaky  ladder  should  continue  to  crawl  courage- 
ously on  the  ground."  But  that  genius  may  not  fall  from  the 
shaking  ladder  in  the  scientific  domain  he  must  possess  enough 
judgment  to  keep  it  well  supported.  It  would  be  too  small  to 
judge  productions  of  such  men  of  genius  by  some  deficiencies  in 
the  details  which  they  may  contain,  to  pick  out  only  trifling 
things.  A  critic  who  has  not  the  understanding  to  find  the  essen- 
tials in  a  production,  but  pays  attention  to  only  side  issues  and 
details,  is  very  liable  to  betray  the  narrowness  of  his  own  horizon. 

We  have  already  mentioned  that  mentally  narrow  men,  due 
to  their  small  range  of  vision,  see  only  the  things  nearby.  This 
is  also  true  in  regard  to  time  conditions;  only  the  present  is  of 
value  to  them,  not  the  future.  They  do  not  look  out  for  the 
future,  and  lack  any  kind  of  foresight.     This  we  observe  in  its 


270  Human  Intelligence. 


typical  form  in  children  and  in  thriftless  persons,  as  well  as  in 
people  of  low  intelligence. 

It  is  said  that  the  natives  of  New  Guinea  sell  their  ham- 
mocks in  the  m.orning,  because  they  do  not  need  them,  and  buy 
them  back  in  the  evening  at  an  advanced  price.  In  all  under- 
takings, let  them  be  ever  so  important,  the  lazy  Andalusian  says, 
"Maiiana"  (tomorrow),  and  puts  it  off  to  "Calendas  grsecas!" 
This  want  of  foresight  in  mentally  narrow  people  is  shown  par- 
ticularly in  regard  to  health  matters.  When  they  get  sick  they 
call  for  medical  help  only  when  they  are  driven  to  it  by  great 
pains,  and  as  soon  as  these  cease  they  discontinue  the  treatment, 
irrespective  of  whether  they  are  cured  or  not.  If  they  have 
acquired  syphilis  they  take  half-way  measures  until  the  visible 
signs  have  disappeared;  they  would  not  think  of  taking  a  num- 
ber of  rigid  treatments ;  they  often  know  the  consequences  of  their 
negligence,  but  as  these  appear  only  years  later,  they  continue  to 
live  on  unconcerned,  until  the  punishment  comes  in  the  form  of 
a  painful  tabes  or  in  a  breakdown  in  body  and  mind,  in  the  form 
of  fearful  paralysis.  In  my  practice  in  Carlsbad  I  see  daily 
patients  with  liver  troubles,  who  did  not  come  for  treatment 
when  the  liver  was  hypertrophied  but  still  soft,  but  waited  until 
the  liver  became  entirely  hard,  when  the  parenchyma  was 
destroyed  and  transformed  into  connective  tissue,  and  then  they 
would  like  to  get  cured  very  quickly — in  three  weeks.  Most 
of  such  fatal  sins  of  negligence  we  see  in  mental  diseases ;  when 
the  development  begins  and  there  is  still  time  to  improve  the 
condition,  and  it  would  be  possible  to  prevent,  probably,  a  men- 
tal disease,  a  psychiatrist  is  seldom  consulted,  but  he  is  called 
upon  only  when  the  disease  has  broken  out  and  there  can  rarely 
be  any  help.  No  other  domain  of  prophylaxis  has  been  more 
sinned  against  than  this;  and,  therefore,  it  is  not  to  be  won- 
dered at  that  the  therapy  of  the  psychiatrist  is  so  powerless. 

The  majority  of  the  public  in  general — one  is  almost  tempted 
to  consider  them  mentally  deficient  in  this  respect — are  exceed- 
ingly foolish  in  many  questions  of  prevention  of  disease,  but, 


Signs  of  Intelligence.  271 

first  of  all,  in  the  assumption  that  when  one  is  well,  he  can  do 
without  any  medical  supervision  at  all.  In  this  respect  the 
Chinese  could  serve  as  a  good  example,  as  they  mostly  have 
themselves  examined  when  they  are  well.  A  machine  may  run 
ever  so  well,  but  a  conscientious  mechanic  will,  from  time  to  time, 
look  after  it,  and  examine  closely  the  individual  parts  to  see 
whether  everything  is  in  order  and  well  oiled,  but  in  the  most 
precious  machine  of  all,  a  defect  is  allowed  to  go  on  further  and 
further,  and  help  is  looked  for  only  when  the  movement  is  half 
destroyed  and  a  restoration  of  the  former  working  capacity  is 
no  longer  possible.  Many  a  man  seems  in  splendid  health,  and 
yet  in  his  urine  may,  under  the  microscope,  constantly  be  found 
red  and  white  blood-corpuscles,  until  some  day  half  of  the  kidney 
is  fo'Und  destroyed  by  tuberculosis,  and  eventually  a  profuse 
hemorrhage  reveals  the  true  nature  of  the  condition ;  sometimes, 
unfortunately,  only  when  it  is  too  late.  Or  the  urine  may  contain 
sugar  (while  the  individual  may  be  apparently  in  splendid  health) 
in  no  small  quantity,  and  the  disease  is  only  discovered  accident- 
ally after  a  number  of  years,  when  it  is  far  advanced  and  poison- 
ous substances  like  acetone  and  acetonacetic  acid  are  formed.  I 
cannot  understand  why  everybody,  at  least  once  in  his  life,  does 
not  have  his  urine  examined.  A  time  may  probably  come  when 
a  precautious  government  may  make  it  obligatory  for  every  citi- 
zen in  advanced  age,  to  undergo  a  thorough  medical  examination, 
say  once  a  year,  and  not  only  physically,  but  also  mentally.  How 
much  suffering  and  misery  could  thus  be  avoided!  Physicians 
as  teachers  and  educators  of  humanity  should,  by  virtue  of  their 
profession.  Inculcate  these  principles  in  the  children  at  school. 
The  more  intelligent  a  people  become,  the  more  will  the  prin- 
ciples of  hygiene  be  observed,  particularly  that  of  cleanliness. 
What  is  the  benefit  to  humanity  when  ardent  scientists  hunt  after 
the  bacteria,  and  at  the  same  time  is  permitted  the  existence  of 
badly  ventilated  theaters,  cafes,  moving-picture  theaters,  where, 
often  under  the  influence  of  great  heat,  these  organisms  are  cul- 
tivated?    The  negligence  of  the  masses  comes  not  only  from 


272  Human  Intelligence. 


their  lower  intelligence,  but  also  from  another  cause,  which  is  so 
often  found  among  mentally  narrow  people,  from  their  weak  will 
power.  In  another  part  of  this  book  we  have  designated  will 
power  as  a  continuous  concentration  of  the  whole  attention  and 
of  all  the  thoughts  on  one  point  which  it  is  desired  to  attain. 
This  faculty  we  almost  never  find  in  mentally  narrow  people! 
When,  moreover,  a  person  does  not  possess  any  foresight  and 
insight,  nor  any  will  power,  it  will  manifest  itself  in  action,  and 
as  such  a  person  lacks  these  main  barriers  against  criminal  acts, 
he  may  easily  be  led  to  commit  such.  And,  in  fact,  those  who 
constitute  the  main  source  of  criminals  are  the  idiots  and  feeble- 
minded. They  lack  insight  into  their  own  actions,  the  foresight 
to  warn  them  against  the  bad  consequences,  and  the  will  power 
to  control  their  passions.  Whether  they  are  already  constitu- 
tionally predisposed  to  crime  can  frequently  be  seen  from  their 
external  appearance.  The  signs  of  degeneration,  which  they, 
according  to  Lombroso,  have  in  common  with  idiots,  and  from 
which  he  traces  the  "reo  nato"  of  bom  criminals,  constitute, 
according  to  what  was  said  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter,  only 
these  external  characteristics  which  indicate  to  us  the  changes  in 
those  organs  which  influence  immensely  the  structure  of  the 
skeleton  as  well  as  the  condition  of  the  brain  and  the  intelligence, 
namely,  the  changes  in  the  thyroid  and  sexual  glands.  In  crimi- 
nals we  find  very  often  changes  in  these  glands,  as  I  called  atten- 
tion to  in  one  of  my  lectures,^  and,  therefore,  I  am  of  the  opinion 
that  we  probably  should  be  able  sometimes  to  prevent  crimes  by 
treating  degenerative  changes  in  the  thyroid  and  sexual  glands. 
Aside  from  medical  treatment  there  should  go  hand-in-hand  an 
elevation  of  the  intelligence  and  strengthening  of  the  power  of 
judgment  by  an  appropriate  school  education.  Elevation  of  the 
intelligence  of  a  population  is  indeed  the  most  effective  preven- 
tive of  crime. 


1  Meeting  of  the  Medico-Legal  Society,  Philadelphia,  April  19,  1907. 
Reported  in  the  Monthly  Cyclopsedia  of  Practical  Medicine,  Philadelphia, 
1907. 


Signs  of  Intelligence.  273 

The  intelligence  of  a  person  manifests  itself,  as  we  have 
said  before,  not  only  in  the  actions,  but  also  in  the  speech 
and  writing.  We  are  often  able  to  judge  a  man  after  a  short 
conversation  with  him,  and  about  the  writing  it  is  justly  said, 
"le  style  c'est  I'homme."^  Even  from  the  external  appearance  of 
the  writing,  the  written  characters,  we  are  often  able,  as  before 
mentioned,  to  recognize  the  mode  of  thinking  and  mental  char- 
acteristics of  a  man ;  also  the  degree  of  education  from  the  spell- 
ing. The  composition  of  a  pupil  betrays  his  personality. 
The  high  intelligence  of  a  man  is  manifested  by  the  fact 
that  he  is  always  able  to  find  the  right  expression,  that  he  never 
lacks  words  to  express  his  thoughts.  A  man  of  high  intelligence 
often  has  the  ability  to  express  himself  briefly,  and  at  the  same 
time  say  a  great  deal ;  and,  first  of  all,  to  emphasize  the  essential 
things,  and  express  himself  in  correct  form  in  all  respects.  The 
man  who  lacks  intelligence  pleases  himself  by  the  rendering  of 
details  with  greatest  circumlocution,  and  he  cannot  find  the 
proper  expressions;  sometimes  he  applies  selected  phrases  in 
places  where  they  have  no  sense  at  all,  and  the  real  meaning  of 
which  is  not  perceived.  What  great  nonsense  may  sometimes 
result  from  it,  particularly  when  incorrect  expressions  may  cause 
double  meanings,  is  shown  by  a  letter  which  was  written  by  an 
ambitious  butcher's  apprentice  to  his  parents  in  Linz  on  the  20th 
of  March,  1913.    The  letter  is  as  follows: — 

In  one  month  it  will  six  weeks,  since  I  have  raised  myself  to  an  efficient 
butcher's  boy.  My  master  shows  me  everything  with  the  greatest  frivolity. 
He  has  already  permitted  me,  to  take  part  in  stabbing,  three  times.  If  I 
conduct  myself  properly,  I  will  be  a  party  to  the  killing. 

Namely,  of  two  oxen,  of  which  one  is  a  cow,  with  which  I  have  the 
honor  of  being. 

Your  thankful  son. 

iThe  style  is  the  man. 


18 


CHAPTER    XXXIII. 
The  Importance  of  Exercising  the  Senses. 

Animals  on  the  lowest  plane  of  intelligence  have  sense- 
organs  which  are  developed  very  little,  but  the  higher  the  animal 
stands  in  the  scale  in  regard  to  its  development  and  intelligence, 
the  more  perfect  these  organs  become.  At  the  top  of  the  scale 
is  man.  Whereas  in  animals,  as  a  rule,  only  one  of  the  sense- 
organs,  depending  on  the  species  to  which  they  belong,  is  partic- 
ularly developed,  as,  for  instance,  the  sense  of  smell  in  the  dog, 
the  eye  in  the  birds  of  prey,  the  hearing  in  some  rodents,  there 
is  no  creature  in  the  whole  animal  kingdom  in  which  all  the  vari- 
ous sense  organs  are  developed  to  such  an  extent  as  they  are  in 
man.  I  may  call  attention  in  particular  to  the  wonderfully  artis- 
tic construction  of  the  human  eye.  In  regard  to  acuteness  of 
vision,  birds,  it  is  true,  rise  above  him,  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  human  eye  possesses  a  number  of  other  perfections  which  are 
lacking  in  animals.  This  corresponds  with  the  structure  of  the 
human  brain,  of  which  the  inner  eye  is  only  a  projection.  If 
seeing  at  a  distance  was  an  expression  of  perfection,  then  far- 
sightedness would  also  have  to  be  considered  as  such,  but  this 
is  a  faulty  condition. 

When  we  say  that  lower  animals  manifest  a  lower  develop- 
ment of  the  sense-organs,  we  can  just  as  well  turn  the  spear  the 
other  way  and  say  that  an  animal  must  have  a  low  grade  of 
intelHgence  when  it  has  badly  developed  sense-organs;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  if  an  animal  shows  well-developed  sense-organs, 
it  also  must  be  an  intelligent  animal.  That  here  a  connection 
exists  between  cause  and  effect,  and  that  consequently  the  lower 
or  higher  intelligence  of  an  animal  depends  on  the  condition  of 
its  sense-organs,  we  can  prove  by  examples  which  are  found  in 
man. 

We  see  that,  as  a  rule,  the  degree  of  idiocy  varies  inversely 
to  the  development  of  the  organs  of  sense,  and  that  among  the 
(274) 


Exercising  tJie  Senses.  275 

various  sense-organs  it  is  the  eye  which  plays  a  dominating 
role  in  man  is  manifested  by  the  fact  that  in  idiots  it  is  just  this 
organ  which  is  chiefly  retarded  in  its  development.  The  fine- 
ness of  a  sense-organ  can  be  judged  best  by  the  condition  of  its 
sensibility.  In  idiots  of  the  worst  type  the  retina  is  distinguished 
by  such  insensibility  that  they  can  look  straight  into  the  sun  or 
into  a  brilliant  source  of  light  without  a  twinkle.  This  insuscep- 
tibility of  the  sensory  organs  and  their  deficient  development  we 
find  in  all  idiots,  less  pronounced  the  more  they  are  capable  of 
education,  and  much  more  pronounced  the  greater  the  degree  of 
idiocy. 

As  a  contrast  to  the  insusceptibility  of  the  sense-organs  in 
idiots  I  may  mention  the  very  frequent  oversensitiveness  of 
these  organs  in  men  of  genius.  The  latter  feel  disturbed  often 
by  the  slightest  noise.  The  great  English  historian  Carlyle  had 
his  bedroom  in  that  part  of  the  house  which  was  farthest  from 
any  sound.  Kant,  Goethe,  and  Schopenhauer  were  also  exceed- 
ingly- sensitive  to  the  slightest  noise.  Kant  had  to  change  his 
residence  once  because  the  roosters  disturbed  him  at  night,  and 
another  time  because  the  singing  of  the  prisoners  in  the  prison 
nearby  annoyed  him  in  his  work.  If  it  is  true,  as  assumed  by 
Manz,  that  scintillating  scotoma  may  originate  from  the  retina — 
and  a  number  of  distinguished  authors  incline  to  this  view — it  is 
significant  that  it  most  frequently  occurs  in  mental  workers,  par- 
ticularly in  the  form  of  abortive  migraine,  without  headache,  as 
a  fortification-zvall-liize  lightning  ray  (teichopsie),  and  usually 
may  be  produced  most  easily  by  dazzling  light.  Some  geniuses 
have  had  an  oversensitiveness  of  smell,  as,  for  instance,  Baude- 
laire, Goethe,  and  Newton;  Napoleon  suffered  from  sight  hallu- 
cinations. As  a  best  example  I  may  mention  Kant.  He  had 
an  exceedingly  fine  taste,  and  a  very  acute  hearing  and  sight,  and 
was  able  to  read  without  glasses  up  to  the  last  weeks  of  his  life.^ 
The  close  relation  between  intelligence  and  acuteness  of  senses  is, 


1  Nach   Jachmann,    Das    Leben    Immannel    Kants    in    Bircfen,    Konigs- 
berg  bei  Nicolovius,  1809. 


276  Human  Intelligence. 


moreover,  expressed  by  the  German  word  "Scharfsinnig,"  which 
is  applied  only  to  intelligent  people. 

The  great  susceptibility  of  the  sense-organs,  their  great  reac- 
tibility  upon  smallest  impressions,  I  have  already  considered  as 
a  characteristic  sign  of  neurasthenia  and  hysteria.  Indeed,  there 
has  hardly  ever  existed  a  genius  who  was  not  nervous. 

The  great  men,  discoverers,  inventors,  have  often  been  dis- 
tinguished by  the  fact  that  the  smallest  stimulation  of  the  senses 
has  been  perceived  by  them,  and  stirred  their  attention;  and  it 
was  often  due  to  this  that  they  were  able  to  pursue  fine 
observations  and  make  discoveries.  Thousands  of  people  could 
have  seen  an  apple  fall  or  a  lamp  swing  without  these  things  hav- 
ing created  in  them  any  further  sequence  of  ideas,  and  still  these 
were  the  things  which  led  Newton  and  Galilei  to  the  discoveries 
which  made  them  immortal. 

The  old,  great  masters  in  medicine  were  able  to  make  very 
often  a  right  diagnosis  on  the  first  glance,  or  by  the  sense  of 
smell.  Of  course,  their  organs  of  sense  were  sharpened  by  con- 
tinuous exercise,  and  they  had  spent  all  their  time  observing 
patients.  Because  the  accessory  means  of  scientific  medicine  had 
not  as  yet  been  developed  they  had  to  use  their  senses,  and  this 
is  how  it  came  about  that  to  make  a  diagnosis  for  diabetes  they 
had  to  touch  the  urine  with  their  tongue. 

Now,  if  the  sense-organs  are  undeveloped,  the  intelli- 
gence also  remains  undeveloped;  and  in  case  the  former  are  in 
perfect  condition,  the  latter  is  usually  of  a  high  grade.  Hence,  the 
conclusion  may  be  drawn  that  the  more  the  sense-organs 
are  developed,  the  higher  will  the  intelligence  advance.  If, 
therefore,  we  want  to  make  a  person  intelligent,  we  must  begin  in 
his  early  childhood,  and  teach  him  to  see,  hear,  smell,  feel 
rightly;  afterward  he  must  continuously  exercise  these  senses. 
This  is  quite  natural,  because  only  by  his  sense-organs  is  a  man 
able  to  receive  impressions,  and  thus  get  an  idea  about  the  vari- 
ous things  in  the  world.  Such  exercises  also  directly  benefit  cer- 
tain brain-centers.     The  more   such   impressions   a  child  will 


Exercising  the  Senses.  277 

take  in,  the  richer  will  be  the  store  of  experiences  which  it  will 
possess.  The  better  his  sense-organs  are  developed,  the  finer, 
the  sharper  they  are,  the  richer  will  be  the  store  of  correct, 
sharply  defined  pictures  which  can  be  taken  in  and  stored  up  in 
memory.  The  first  impressions  which  a  man  receives  are  often 
the  most  decisive,  and  it  is,  therefore,  most  important  that  they 
should  be  correct  from  the  start;  consequently  a  child  should  be 
able  to  observe,  and  must  be  taught  to  do  it.  It  is  found,  more- 
over, that  children  of  congenital  intelligence  are  very  inquisitive ; 
they  want  to  see  and  touch  everything;  this  manifests  a  longing 
for  knowledge,  which  can  be  led  into  the  right  channels  by  sensible 
advice.  Here  a  wise  father,  or  teacher — the  best  name  for  him 
would  be  advisor — by  exercising  the  senses  in  the  right  direction 
has  a  deciding  influence  upon  the  future  career  of  a  child.  It 
w^ould  be  very  appropriate  to  exercise  the  senses  of  a  child,  and 
particularly  when  the  children  are  only  slightly  active  mentally, 
by  the  methods  of  instruction  which  were  introduced  by  Maria 
Montessori^  in  Rome.  I  had  an  opportunity  to  observe  her 
method  in  the  Casa  del  Bambini  (Children's  Home)  of  the 
Humanitarian  Society  in  Milan.  The  teacher  makes  the  room 
perfectly  dark,  and  in  a  very  low,  whispering  voice  calls  one  of 
the  children.  This  naturally  induces  the  children  to  keep  per- 
fectly quiet,  and  pay  attention  so  as  to  hear  the  sound.  They 
thus  practise  listening.  Soon  after  the  teacher  makes  a  small 
clock  tick  in  one  of  the  corners  of  the  room,  and  then  asks  the 
children  from  where  the  sound  comes.  If  she  then  hears  a 
wrong  answer,  she  inquires  which  child  did  not  hear  the  clock 
in  the  right  place,  and  examines  more  closely  the  hearing  of  the 
child.  It  is  known  that  in  case  of  weakness  of  the  hearing  on 
one  side  the  source  of  sounds  and  noises  cannot  be  located,  and 
is  transferred  to  the  side  of  that  ear  which  hears  the  best.  It  is 
indeed  of  greatest  importance  to  find  out  just  such  deficiencies 
in  the  sense-organs  in  children  very  early,  otherwise  it  may 
happen   that   the   unsatisfactory   doings   of   a   child   would   be 

1  Dr.  Maria  Montessori,  Selbsttatige  Erziehung.    Stuttgart,  1913. 


278  Human  Intelligence. 


attributed  to  the  lack  of  will  and  diligence,  and  not  to  his 
physical  deficiencies. 

That  human  intelligence  can  only  be  developed  by  exercis- 
ing the  organs  of  sense  we  can  learn  from  the  example  presented 
by  the  child.  The  child's  thinking,  as  already  said,  is  based  only 
upon  the  sensory  impressions  which  it  has  received.  From  that 
it  forms  its  first  ideas,  which  are,  therefore,  all  concrete.  From 
these  concrete  ideas  it  then  forms  its  abstract  ones.  Abstract 
thinking,  the  higher  kind  of  thinking,  is  entirely  impossible  with- 
out the  concrete  one.  A  man  who  does  not  reflect  over  the  sen- 
sory impressions  received,  and  who,  therefore,  cannot  think  con- 
cretely, is  also  not  able  to  do  higher  abstract  thinking,  the  ideal 
thinking,  properly.  We  see  this,  for  example,  in  idiots,  whose 
sense-organs,  as  a  rule,  are  not  developed,  and  this  corresponds 
in  exact  ratio  with  the  grade  of  their  disease. 

The  exercises  for  sharpening  the  sight  in  children  consist  in 
showing  them  colored  wooden  blocks  of  various  lengths,  which 
they  have  to  arrange  in  a  certain  way ;  that  is,  to  begin  with  the 
shortest.  A  still  finer  exercise  is  the  assorting  of  spools  of  silk 
of  various  colors  and  shadings,  whereby  those  belonging  to  the 
same  color  are  to  be  put  together.  An  advanced  lesson  consists 
in  making  a  scale  of  various  shadings  of  the  same  color  from 
lighter  to  darker.  The  touch  and  sight  of  the  children  may  be 
exercised  by  putting  wooden  squares  of  different  sizes  together, 
so  that  the  largest  would  be  at  the  bottom,  the  next  smaller  to 
follow  until  a  pyramid  or  a  tower  is  formed.  Another  exercise 
is  to  pick  out  the  squares  of  equal  size.  These  exercises  also 
serve  to  strengthen  the  faculty  of  seeing  and  the  ability  to  dif- 
ferentiate. The  sense  of  touch  may  also  be  very  much  developed 
by  an  attempt  to  put  plugs  of  various  sizes  in  corresponding 
holes,  into  which  they  must  fit  perfectly,  or  by  putting  buttons 
of  various  sizes  into  the  proper  buttonholes.  Such  training  also 
develops  the  manual  dexterity  of  the  children,  and  this  is  of  so 
much  more  importance  because  they  learn  something  which  they 


Exercising  the  Senses.  279 

otherwise  would  never  learn  in  school;  namely  to  become 
practical. 

Sight  and  touch  are  also  exercised  by  the  introduction  of 
another  practical  feature.  Before  the  beginning  of  the  daily 
instructions  each  child  is  alternately  obliged  to  examine  the 
hands,  ears  and  teeth  of  their  little  classmates.  When  some 
uncleanliness  is  discovered,  the  respective  child  is  led  by  his  com- 
rade to  the  wash  basin  to  be  washed.  This  sharpens  the  sense 
of  cleanliness  in  the  child  and  makes  him  accustomed  to  the 
importance  of  practical  hygiene,  and  educates  him  to  a  beneficial 
altruism. 

I  think  that  these  exercises  could  be  made  still  more  perfect 
by  the  additional  use  of  games  for  testing  the  intelligence,  as 
introduced  by  Mikulski.  These  consist  in  half  figures  of  vari- 
ous animals,  as,  for  instance,  of  dogs,  lions,  cats.  If  one  puts 
a  dog's  body  on  a  lion's  head,  with  a  mane  on  it,  an  intelligent 
child  would  become  startled,  and  would  soon  pick  out  the  corre- 
sponding part.  The  children  who  are  lacking  in  intelligence 
could  be  instructed,  and  advised  in  selecting  the  proper  parts. 
Of  course,  it  is  necessary  that  the  children  should  have  already 
seen  pictures  of  various  animals.  In  this  way,  and  by  the 
methods  described  before,  not  only  the  use  of  the  organs  of  sense 
are  exercised  and  size  perception  is  strengthened,  but  by  compar- 
ing and  finding  out  the  differences,  thinking  is  also  stimulated 
and  the  store  of  experience  enriched.  As  a  very  useful  exercise 
I  would  recommend  that  the  child  be  shown  a  number  of  objects 
of  the  same  kind,  which  differ  from  one  another  in  some  details, 
and  let  it  find  the  difference  for  itself.  In  this  way  the  acuteness 
of  the  senses  is  promoted  very  much,  particularly  those  of  sight 
and  touch. 

We  are,  of  course,  dealing  here,  in  the  first  place,  with  prac- 
tical, tangible,  concrete  things.  If,  however,  the  children  have 
learned  the  correct  estimation  of  these,  the  actual  thinking  in  a 
theoretical  way  could  be  easily  added.  This  method  is  evidently 
just  the  opposite  to  the  one  which  has  always  been  in  vogue  in 


280  Human  Intelligence. 


our  schools.  The  object  of  the  latter  is  to  instruct  the  children 
in  the  theoretical  part,  and  only  afterward,  when  they  become 
discouraged  and  disgusted,  to  give  them  the  practical  part. 
Whereas,  by  theoretical  instruction  in  school,  the  senses,  with 
the  exception  of  the  hearing  and  to  a  certain  degree  also  the 
sight,  are  neglected,  we  could,  by  the  exercises  mentioned  before, 
unfold  them,  and  then  have  manual  training  follow,  and  thus 
bring  up  a  generation  of  both  practically  and  theoretically  cor- 
rect thinking  people. 

Success  will  be  still  greater  if  the  children  would  later  on 
join  the  organizations  of  the  pathfinders,  and  by  long  excursions, 
under  proper  supervision,  into  the  haunts  of  mother  Nature,  make 
the  senses  more  acute. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

The  Advantage  of  Extensive  Travelling  as 
Practical  Exercise  for  the  Senses. 

It  was  a  remarkable  characteristic  of  the  great  men  of  past 
centuries  that  they  Hked  to  go  on  long  journeys.  They  used  to 
spend  years  in  this  manner,  and  that  was  at  a  time  when  there 
were  no  railroads  and  the  slow  travelling  in  stage  coaches  was 
not  only  very  troublesome,  but  also  not  without  danger.  At  the 
time  of  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam,  and  also  of  Leibnitz,  a  man 
had  to  make  his  will  before  going  on  a  journey.  Notwith- 
standing this  we  see  how  the  former,  that  distinguished  scholar, 
travelled  extensively,  and  led  a  roaming,  wandering  life.  This 
was  also  the  case  with  the  great  philosopher  Descartes,  who 
refused  to  live  quietly  at  his  leisure  with  his  wealthy  family,  but 
preferred  military  service  in  the  Netherlands.  Then,  wandering 
aimlessly  through  half  of  Europe,  he  came  by  chance  through 
the  north  to  Stockholm.  Locke,  Leibnitz,  Karl  von  Linnee, 
Swedenborgh,  all  of  these  men  made  long  journeys  and  remained 
for  long  periods  in  foreign  countries,  as  did  also  the  great  poets 
and  writers  of  those  times.  The  adventurous  life  of  Cervantes 
is  known;  he  was  for  long  a  soldier,  fighting  for  the  Spaniards 
in  foreign  countries,  and  for  many  years  was  a  prisoner  of  war 
of  the  Bey  of  Algeria.  Petrarca,  Giordano  Bruno,  each  travelled 
extensively.  At  a  time  when  it  was  so  dangerous  the  distin- 
guished Flemish  physician,  Van  Helmont  (who  so  successfully 
fought  against  the  wrong  teachings  of  the  Galenic  school,  par- 
ticularly venesection,  which  was  so  highly  recommended  by  it), 
journeyed  through  Europe  as  far  as  Tartary.  Willem  Romme- 
laere  reports  in  his  book  on  Van  Helmont  that  the  latter  travelled 
through  Austria,  Bavaria,  then  came  toi  Russia,  as  far  as  the 
border  of  Tartary,  and  went  later  to  Alsace,  France,  Italy, 
Spain,     Everywhere  he  observed  the  practice  of  medicine,  and 

(281) 


282  Human  Intelligence. 


in  this  way  accumulated  useful  knowledge.  In  the  same  way  the 
great  thinkers  of  later  centuries,  Rousseau,  Voltaire,  Goethe, 
made  long  journeys.  Goethe  stayed  long  in  Italy,  and  travelled 
much  in  general,  and  that  at  a  time  when  travelling  was  much 
less  comfortable  than  it  is  at  present.  Kant  was  probably  the 
only  one  who  did  not  travel;  he  did  not  absent  himself  even  a 
few  hours'  distance  from  Koenigsberg.  As  in  many  other 
things,  he  was  queer  also  in  this  respect,  but  he  liked  to  read  of 
foreign  lands,  and  in  his  lectures  to  bring  in  examples  and 
anecdotes  from  experiences  of  others.  Richard  Wagner  was 
actually  always  on  the  road,  and  Meyerbeer  was  always  travel- 
ling, and  wrote  his  operas,  so  to  say,  in  the  railroad  trains. 

We  see,  in  general,  a  true  wandering  impulse  among  the 
great  men,  and  I  consider  it  possible  that  Napoleon  was  led  to 
foreign  countries,  to  Africa  and  to  Russia,  not  alone  by  his  con- 
quering impulse,  but  also  by  his  wandering  impulse.  This 
impulse  for  wandering,  the  search  for  the  distant,  curiosity  for 
the  unknown,  is  a  characteristic  feature  of  great  men,  even  in 
their  youth;  and  it  may,  therefore,  be  assumed  that  there  exists 
a  natural  connection  between  the  wandering  impulse,  with  exten- 
sive travelling  as  its  sequel,  and  the  development  of  genius  in 
such  men.  This  is  quite  natural,  because  in  travelling  new 
impressions  are  constantly  received,  and  we  are  perfectly  justi- 
fied in  considering  travelling  in  foreign  countries  as  practical 
exercise  for  sharpening  the  senses.  By  perception  of  much  that 
is  new,  and  which  has  not  been  seen  before,  we  are  enlarging  the 
store  of  our  experience,  and  the  gathering  of  new  experience  is 
equal  to  studying.  Travelling  is,  therefore,  practical  instruction, 
only  with  this  difference,  that  what  is  learned  that  way,  on 
account  of  its  more  lasting  impression  upon  our  faculty  of 
observation,  remains  in  our  memory  much  longer,  and  may  be 
preserved  there  for  many  3^ears.  Because  we  are  constantly 
becoming  acquainted  with  new  things  Ave  are  compelled  to  make 
comparisons  with  what  we  have  seen  previously,  and  such  com- 
parisons stimulate  thinking  very  much.    This  also  explains  why 


Advantage  of  Travelling.  283 

most  important  discoveries  and  inventions  are  made  or  obtain 
their  original  stimulus  during  a  journey.  For  instance,  the  voy- 
age of  Darwin  on  the  steamer  ''Beagle"  stimulated  his  inspira- 
tion; and  also  the  distant  journeying  of  Alexander  von  Hum- 
boldt had  a  similar  effect.  Gibbon,  as  mentioned  before,  received 
his  inspiration  to  write  his  celebrated  book  on  the  "Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire"  while  on  his  way  to  Rome.  The  telegraph  was 
invented  by  Morse  during  a  journey.  Herder,  on  the  lonely 
deck  of  a  boat,  late  at  night,  on  his  way  to  France,  received  the 
inspiration  to  write  his  genesis  of  primitive  poetry  and  the 
gradual  evolution  of  mankind.  Just  as  profitable  was  a  journey 
to  Java  for  Robert  Mayer.  In  his  capacity  as  ship  doctor,  he, 
on  anchoring  at  Surabaya,  performed  a  venesection  on  one  of 
the  sailors.  When  he  saw  how  red  the  blood  was  he  became 
afraid  that  he  might  possibly  have  injured  an  artery.  After- 
ward he  heard  that  in  the  tropics  venous  blood  looks  like  arterial 
blood,  and  an  idea  came  to  his  mind  very  suddenly  that  this 
might' have  some  connection  w^ith  the  reduced  loss  of  heat  by  the 
body  in  the  tropics,  and  that  oxidation  processes  must  be  reduced 
there.     And  so,  later,  he  formulated  his  laws  on  heat. 

The  further  development  of  many  great  men  has  undoubt- 
edly been  greatly  advanced  by  impressions  received  and  obser- 
vations made  while  travelling,  and  in  some  instances  could  prob- 
ably be  attributed  to  that  alone.  So,  surely,  did  the  journey  of 
Mohammed  to  Syria,  which  he  took  at  the  age  of  14,  with  his 
uncle  Abu  Thaleb,  and  where  be  became  acquainted  with  the 
Nestorian  monk  Sergius,  who  made  a  deep  impression  upon  him. 
He  came  in  touch  here  with  the  teaching  of  the  Christian 
church,  and  this  had  a  lasting  effect  upon  this  very  intelligent 
youth  and  influenced  his  future  life.  Especially  the  travelling 
which  is  done  during  youth  can  have  a  powerful  educational  in- 
fluence. It  is  precisely  the  same  as  with  studying.  For  the  latter 
a  man  is  most  fitted  at  the  age  when  his  sense-organs,  by  means 
of  which  he  receives  his  impressions,  are  in  best  condition.  And 
these    are    the    years    after    puberty,    and    from    that    time 


284  Human  Intelligence. 


on  to  the  years^  of  more  advanced  manhood.  Of  most  im- 
portance, it  seems  to  me,  is  travel  during  youth,  because  the 
sense-organs  are  then  fresh  and  open  to  impressions.  I  may 
add  here  the  statement  gained  from  experience  that  the  first 
impressions  are  the  most  permanent  and  lasting.  Every  father, 
whose  means  will  permit,  should  send  his  son  travelling  while 
he  is  still  young.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  railroads,  like 
so  many  of  our  other  achievements  of  modem  days.,  are  so 
detrimental  to  the  little  romance  which  is  left  at  the  present  day 
in  our  daily  life,  and  which  has  brought  to  an  end  the  wander- 
ing journeymanships.  May  they  be  revived  again  in  the  organi- 
zations of  the  youthful  pathfinders  (walking  clubs)  !  The  wan- 
dering through  Nature  on  foot,  the  visiting  of  the  villages  of 
foreign  countries,  instead  of  the  large  cities  with  their  interna- 
tional character,  may  possibly  give  travelling  a  particular  hue 
of  attraction  and  interest.  If  we  want  to  observe  Nature,  and 
watch  our  genuine  instructor  in  her  workshop,  then  it  is  best  to 
make  excursions  on  foot,  and,  for  those  better  situated,  in  auto- 
mobiles. In  medieval  times  all  universities  had  travelling 
funds  ("Bursse")  from  which  scholarships  were  given  to  the 
students  to  perfect  themselves  in  other  foreign  universities. 
Even  now,  Belgian  high-schools,  for  example,  send  talented 
pupils  to  Bologna  to  perfect  their  education — for  instance,  in 
medicine.  The  expenses  for  it  are  covered  by  an  old-established 
fund.  It  would  be  very  desirable  if  the  State  could  establish  at 
each  university  several  such  scholarships,  or,  as  the  State  rarely 
has  money  for  such  things,  if  some  rich  people  would  provide 
in  their  wills  some  funds  for  such  purposes ;  this  would  certainly 
be  a  generous  deed  in  the  interest  of  the  commonwealth.  Par- 
ticularly for  medical  students  and  young  physicians,  it  would  be 
of  greatest  advantage  to  visit  in  succession  foreign  universities 
and  hospitals,  to  find  out  everywhere  what  is  new  and  take  it 
along.  A  physician,  particularly,  can  never  see  enough,  and  no 
matter  how  old  he  becomes  and  how  much  he  has  travelled,  he 
would  always  find  something  new  to  add  to  his  store  of  know!- 


'Advantage  of  Travelling.  285 

edge.  Moreover,  for  the  medical  profession,  which  requires 
absolutely  the  highest  qualities  of  intelligence,  greatest  acuteness 
of  all  the  senses  is  simply  indispensable,  and  these  can  be  best 
developed  by  much  travelling,  by  seeing  and  comparing. 

The  great  Flemish  physician.  Van  Helmont,^  of  whose  great 
travels  in  Europe  during  the  sixteenth  century  we  have  already 
spoken,  used  to  say,  and  that  with  perfect  justice,  that  whoever 
desires  to  read  in  the  Book  of  Nature,  must  not  always  fix  his 
eyes  on  the  same  page.  The  more  we  have  seen  in  our  lives,  the 
larger  will  be  the  size  of  the  album  of  curiosities  accumulated; 
and  if  then  something  new  should  occur,  we  can  refer  to  the 
pages  of  this  album,  and  by  comparing  it  with  what  we  have 
seen  before,  thus  reveal  its  true  nature.  And  to  be  able  to  see 
much  and  what  is  new,  we  must  travel  much.  Travelling  is  an 
excellent  means  for  increasing  our  power  of  judgment  and  for 
the  development  of  our  intelligence. 


1  W.  Rommelaere,  Etude  sur  J.  B.  Van  Helmont,  Bruxelles,  1868. 


VI.     MEMORY  AND  ITS  SYSTEMATIC  DEVELOPMENT. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

The  Foundation  of  Memory  and  its  Dependence 

UPON  the  Conditions  of  Blood-circulation 

IN  the  Brain-cortex. 

Among  the  remarkable  mechanisms  in  the  human  body 
there  is  hardly  one  which  is  as  wonderful  and  as  puzzling  as 
the  memory.  It  is  indeed  surprising  how  a  spermatozoon  can 
transmit  continuousl}^  for  hundreds  of  3^ears  to  human  beings 
created  by  its  aid  a  hanging  lower  lip,  an  eagle  nose  or  a 
dimple  in  the  chin;  but  is  it  not  still  more  wonderful  that  we 
are  capable  of  recalling  at  our  desire  objects  which  we  have  seen 
twenty  or  thirty,  or  even  fifty  years  or  sixty  years  ago,  and  not 
only  one  object,  but  thousands  of  them?  And,  in  addition, 
remember  that  this  enormous  collection  of  pictures,  which  would 
crowd  a  very  large  library,  is  preserved  in  such  a  small  space 
as  the  brain-cortex.  And  what  a  legion  of  pictures,  inscriptions, 
words  and  conceptions  does  it  not  contain!  Where  is  there  a 
library  which  can  compare  with  it  in  the  abundance  of  the  most 
varied  pictures  ?  The  famous  library  destroyed  by  Caliph  Omar 
contained  so  great  a  number  of  volumes  and  manuscripts  that,  by 
their  burning,  the  many  hundreds  of  Alexandrian  bath-houses 
were  furnished  with  heat  for  six  months  without  interruption. 
But  what  was  this  library  compared  with  the  one  which  any  one 
of  our  sexagenarian  or  septuagenarian  scientists  carries  in  his 
brain-cortex  in  the  form  of  millions  and  millions  of  pictures,  in- 
scriptions, words,  thoughts  collected  since  his  childhood !  What 
are  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world  compared  with  the  fact  that  he, 
in  addition,  is  able  to  summon  in  a  few  seconds  any  desired  pic- 
(286) 


The  Foundation  of  Memory.  287 

ture,  word  or  thought  from  this  enormous  Hbrary,  concentrated 
in  so  small  a  space ! 

That  an  object  once  seen,  or  a  word  indicating  an  object 
once  heard,  may  be  retained  in  the  memory  for  many,  many 
years  is  well  known  to  every  one  of  us.  They  are  certainly 
retained,  for  we  could  not  recall  that  which  we  do  not  possess. 
In  a  like  manner,  other  pictures  are  recalled  which  must  have 
been  preserved  for  years  in  the  form  of  pictures.  This  store- 
house is  the  brain-cortex,  as  has  already  been  assumed  by  Willis 
and  others  hundreds  of  years  ago.  We  also  know,  according  to 
the  investigations  of  Edinger,^  that  the  memory  is  developed 
better  as,  in  the  phylogenetic  series,  the  cortex  of  the  animal 
grows  in  volume  and  in  number  of  cells. 

And  still,  no  matter  how  minutely  we  examine  the  brain- 
cortex, — the  seat  of  memory, — microscopically  we  are  unable  to 
detect  in  it  a  single  picture.  We  only  find  cells  which  have 
processes  branching  out  in  a  tree-like  fashion,  and  which  are 
traversed  by  a  large  number  of  fine  threads.  As  has  already 
been  mentioned  inChapter  XXX,  we  must  attribute  an  important 
role  in  the  formation  of  the  memory  impressions  to  these  finer 
or  coarser  threads,  according  to  the  investigations  of  H,  E. 
Ziegler.2  We  are  well  able  to  speak  of  impressions  which  can  be 
attributed  to  the  various  sensory  perceptions  acting  upon  us,  and 
which  are  later  recalled.  The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  pic- 
tured the  memory  as  an  inscription  or  engraving  upon  a  wax 
tablet.  Of  course,  at  that  time  they  had  no  phonographs,  but  we 
can,  not  unjustly,  compare  these  inscriptions  to  the  impressions 
produced  by  sound  on  plates  of  wax.  The  carved-in  threads, — 
the  fibrils, — then,  are  only  of  a  symbolical  nature,  and  similar  to 
the  paper  impressions  produced  in  the  Morse  telegraph;  they 
designate  to  us  pictures  and  conceptions.  That  a  picture  is  pro- 
duced by  a  stimulus  received  by  the  organ  of  sight,  we  observe 


1  Ludwig  Edinger,  Vorlesungen  iiber  den  Bau  der  nervosen  Zentralor- 
gane  des  Menschen  und  der  Tiere.    Leipzig,  1896,  V  Auflage. 

2  Ziegler,  /.  c. 


288  Human  Intelligence. 


in  the  case  of  the  pig's  eye,  when  the  animal  is  killed  quickly,  at 
the  moment  when  it  has  fixed  upon  an  object.  We  are  then  able 
to  see  the  picture  on  the  background  of  the  eye. 

It  seems,  however,  that  pictures  are  formed,  not  only  out- 
side, but  also'  inside,  such  as  may  be  fixed  in  certain  centers  of 
the  brain-cortex.  Otherwise  we  would  not  be  able  to  under- 
stand how  it  is  possible  for  these  pictures  to  reappear  entirely 
fresh  after  a  long  period  of  time.  The  bringing  to  life  and  pre- 
senting again  of  these  pictures  is  undoubtedly  brought  about 
with  the  aid  of  those  fibrils  which  traverse  the  dendrites  and 
axis-cylinders  of  the  nerve-cells  on  their  way  toward  the  various 
centers.  That  these  fibrils  which  run  through  the  processes  and 
their  branches  make  connection  with  a  great  number  of  cells  we 
have  already  mentioned.  But  we  have  also  mentioned  that  these 
processes,  which  interchange  with  the  most  varied  nerve- 
cells  and  serve  the  purpose  of  association  or  the  linking  of 
thoughts,  become  changed  through  numerous,  most  varied 
stimuli,  as,  for  example,  by  sleep-producing  remedies,  and 
thereby  their  plasticity,  that  is,  their  changeability  toward  out- 
side influences,  is  proven.  It  was  also  mentioned  that  the 
development  of  these  processes,  according  to  the  investigations 
of  Berger  in  the  laboratory  of  the  psychiatric  clinic,  in  Jena, 
is  enhanced  by  the  use  of  the  senses;  that  Is  to  say,  by  the 
influence  of  outside  stimuli.  That  these  processes  must  play  an 
important  role  in  the  memory  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  in 
the  most  grave  disturbances  of  this  faculty,  as  in  progressive 
paralysis,  for  instance,  these  processes  in  particular  are  mostly 
affected,  and  may  even  disappear.  Ziegler  also  points  out  that 
the  gravest  forms  of  mental  diseases  are  those  in  which  the  con- 
nections between  the  cells — that  means  the  continuity  of  these 
processes — are  broken  down.  The  more  these  connections  are 
destroyed,  the  greater  is  the  loss  of  memory.  For  an  explana- 
tion of  the  process  of  memory  Ziegler  alludes  to  the  conditions 
existing  in  certain  protozoa,  the  rhizopodes.  There  are  rhizo- 
podes  whose  processes  bear  a  great  similarity  to  those  of  the 


The  Foundation  of  Memory.  289 

neurones.  Similarly  to  the  latter,  their  processes  branch  out  in 
very  minute  branches.  This  similarity  is  so  much  pronounced 
that  Rabl-Riickhardt,  Tanzi,  Lepine,  Duval,  and  others,  have 
based  upon  it  their  theory  of  the  ameboid  nature  of  these  nerve- 
cells.^ 

By  means  of  the  most  varied  mechanical  and  chemical 
stimuli,  it  is  possible  to  produce  the  same  pearl-necklace-like 
changes  in  these  processes  as  are  found  in  the  neurones.  This 
has  been  observed,  for  example,  by  Max  Schultze^  in  Actinophris 
eichornii,  and  also^  by  Verworn^  in  a  great  number  of  protozoa. 
In  both  cases  the  pearl-necklace  condition  is  the  result  of  the 
irritability  of  the  protoplasm. 

Now,  Ziegler  points  out  that  those  processes  in  the  rhizo- 
podes  which  have  found  food  become  thicker  and  longer.  This 
is  the  consequence  of  the  normal  stimulation  which  the  food 
produces.  Very  similar  stimuli  for  the  nerve-cells  of  the  brain- 
cortex,  according  to  Ziegler,  are  the  most  varied  impressions 
which  act  upon  these  cells;  they  are  molecular  movements 
which  take  their  origin  in  the  organs  of  sense  and  are  trans- 
mitted by  means  of  the  nerve  processes.  The  transmission 
of  the  nerve-stream  is  supposed  to  produce  an  enlargement  of 
the  branchings  of  the  nerve-cells.  This  stream  is  also  sup- 
posed, however,  while  traversing  the  body  of  the  cell,  to  cause 
within  the  protoplasm  itself  either  the  formation  of  a  new 
fiber — a  fibrilla,  or  an  enlargement,  or  we  might  better  say,  a 
thickening  of  a  fiber  already  existing.  This  differentiation  tak- 
ing place  within  the  cell  would  then  be  the  result  of  the  plasticity 
of  the  nerve-cells,  which,  according  to  Ziegler,  form  the  cyto- 
logical  base  of  the  memory. 

According  to  these  explanations  given  by  Ziegler  we  can 
easily  conceive  that  when  a  stimulus,  a  word  or  thought,  had 


3  Azoulay  et  Klippel,  quoted  after  Ziegler. 

4  Max   Schultze,   Das   Protoplasma  der   Rhizopoden  und   der   Pflanzen- 
zellen.    Leipzig,  1863,  S.  11  und  17. 

5  Max  Verworn,  Die  Bewegung  der  lebendigen  Substanz,  Jena,  1892. 


290  Human  Intelligence. 


very  often  followed  the  same  path,  was  therefore  transmitted  by 
the  same  fiber,  the  latter,  by  analogy  with  similar  processes  in 
pathology,  would  become  thicker.  In  other  words,  "the  thought, 
the  word,  the  picture  are  then  deeply  engraved  and  can  easily  be 
recalled  to  memory."  When,  however,  the  application  of  these 
thoughts  or  words  is  not  practised  any  more,  and  the  trail  thus 
remains  unused,  the  respective  fibers  will  not  receive  nourish- 
ment any  more,  the  impression  will  fade  away,  and  the  whole 
thing  becomes  forgotten.  We  can  only  remember  those  things 
which,  by  numerous  repetitions,  have  been  well  anchored.  In 
view  of  the  fact  that  every  day  new  impressions,  coming  from 
all  sides,  act  upon  us,  the  terminal  branches  of  the  nerve-cells 
establish  new  relations  with  neighboring  cells,  new  tracts  within 
the  cells  are  formed,  and  the  neglect  of  the  previously  formed 
results  in  their  fading  away  and  being  forgotten. 

In  these  processes  a  very  important  role  must  be  played  by 
the  conditions  of  the  blood-circulation  in  the  brain-cortex.  Even 
if  it  is  not  justifiable  to  accept  the  assumption  made  by  Golgi,® 
that  the  arborizations  of  the  association  cells,  and  possibly  of 
other  nerve-cells  as  well,  by  means  of  processes  reach  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  cortex,  and  there  enter  relations  with  the  blood- 
vessels in  that  locality,  it  is  certain  that  the  ganglion  cells  enter 
connections  with  the  blood-vessels  by  means  of  the  glia.  We 
also  know  that  there  is  no  thinking  possible  without  blood-sup- 
ply. If  we  want,  however,  to  incorporate  something  into  our 
memory,  be  that  an  object  which  we  saw  or  a  word  which  we 
heard,  we  must  take  good  notice  of  it.  We  must  be  watchful 
and  pay  attention  to  it,  consequently  must  think  of  the  word 
which  we  heard,  because  only  in  this  way  are  we  able  to  fix  it 
in  memory.  If  we  are  absent-minded,  we  are  naturally  not  able 
to  take  notice  of  anything. 

It  has  often  been  mentioned  that  for  thinking  blood  is 
required.  In  fact,  experience  teaches  us  that  we  remember  such 
things  best  which  we  have  heard  or  seen  at  a  time  when  our 


6  Golgi,  /.  c. 


The  Foundation  of  Memory.  291 

blood-circulation  was  most  active.  When  we  are  under  influ- 
ence of  some  emotion,  the  blood-pressure  is  raised  and  the 
blood-supply  to  the  brain-cortex  is  increased,  and  everything 
that  happened  to  us  at  that  time  is  vividly  retained  in  our 
memory.  This  also  explains  the  fact,  as  seen  from  the  experi- 
ments made  recently  by  Peters,  that  we  retain  much  longer 
occurrences  associated  with  pleasure  than  those  associated  with 
displeasure ;  the  fact  that  we  look  back  with  pleasure  on  agree- 
able events  prevents  their  fading.  According  to  Herbert 
Spencer,  sometimes  entirely  trivial,  unimportant  incidents  are 
retained  very  well  in  memory,  if  they  happened  to  take  place 
at  a  time  when,  on  account  of  some  pleasant  impression,  the 
activity  of  the  heart  was  increased.  This  is  also  the  relation 
which  exists  when  we  sometimes  find  that  the  insane  show  a 
distinct  memory  for  entirely  unimportant  details,  which  have 
been  perceived  during  their  condition  of  maniacal  exaltation. 
They  give  then  a  full  minute  description  of  the  smallest  details, 
even  if  a  long  time,  sometimes  years,  has  since  passed.  As  an 
example  I  may  mention  here  the  case  of  the  murderer  Farina, 
who  suffered  from  persecutional  insanity,  and  whose  own 
description  of  his  miserable  deed  and  of  the  circumstances  which 
led  him  to  it  are  published  by  Lombroso.  He  mentions  the  sub- 
ject of  the  conversations  with  himself,  of  his  various  dreams  in 
all  their  details;  he  even  gives  the  measurements  of  a  piece  of 
soap  which  was  given  to  him  by  the  mother  of  his  sweetheart 
some  time  before  the  deed  took  place,  and  even  also  the  words 
which  had  been  spoken  on  that  occasion.  And  all  these  details 
some  years  after  the  crime.'^ 

When  we  are  able  to  recall  often  in  our  memory  some  small 
things  from  our  childhood  days,  when  incidents  which  have 
occurred  many  years  ago  stand  out  before  our  eyes  in  fresh 
colors,  this  may  possibly  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  in  the 
growing  child  the  blood-circulation  is  very  active  and,   there- 


■^  Lombroso,  /.  c,  S.  289. 


292  Hiimaii  Intelligence. 


fore,  insignificant  occurrences,  only  on  account  of  their  new- 
ness, cause  a  pleasant  emotion. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  impossible  to  retain  impressions 
when  the  blood-circulation  in  the  cortex  is  low.  After  a  good 
and  large  meal,  when  the  whole  amount  of  blood  or  a  part  of 
it  rushes  to  the  digestive  organs,  we  are  not  able  to  take  notice 
of  anything,  or  it  is  done  with  difficulty  and  we  are  not  able  to 
retain  anything  in  memory.  The  same  is  the  case  when  we  are 
sleepy,  and  this  is  for  reasons  which  we  have  already  mentioned. 
When,  by  partaking  of  strong  coffee  or  tea,  we  induce  a  lively 
flow  of  blood  toward  the  brain  we  are  able  to  impress  every- 
thing better  into  our  memory ;  when,  on  the  other  hand,  we  take 
a  sleep-producing  remedy,  and  in  this  way  cause  a  lowering  of  the 
blood-circulation  in  the  brain-cortex,  the  opposite  effect  occurs. 

When  old  people  retain  everything  so  badly  In  their  mem- 
ories, this  must  be  attributed  mainly  to  the  lowering  of  the  blood- 
circulation  in  the  brain.  Contrasting  with  it  stands  the  good, 
clear  memory  of  the  children,  in  whom  the  circulation  in  the 
brain,  as  just  mentioned,  is  a  very  active  one.  It  must  also  be 
remembered  that,  while  children,  it  is  true,  learn  quickly,  they 
also  forget  quickly.  The  example  of  a  3-year-old  child,  which 
in  two  months  had  learned  German  and  French,  but  had  for- 
gotten its  mother  tongue,  the  Hungarian,  I  have  already  men- 
tioned. 

This  rapid  forgetting  In  children  is  to  be  attributed  to  the 
fact  that  in  children  the  process  of  memorizing  Is  more  of  a 
mechanical  act,  which  is,  properly  speaking,  not  connected  with 
a  thinking  operation,  and  is  not  based  upon  associations.  The 
child  notes  everything  best  by  repeating  what  it  has  heard,  and 
recites  It  then  in  about  the  same  way  as  do  parrots.  Our  wrong 
system  of  education  Is  so  adapted  that  it  does  not  leave  any  other 
way  open  for  memorizing.  By  grinding  It  is  possible  to  incul- 
cate everything,  even  Chinese,  Assyrian,  Greek  words  which  are 
not  understood;  it  is  only  necessary  to  repeat  them  a  thousand 
times,  then  the  children  will  retain  them  until  their  old  age. 


The  Foundation  of  Memory.  293 

I  should  like  to  distinguish  between  two  kinds  of  memory: 
I,  the  recitative;  2,  the  associative.  The  first  has  nothing  or 
very  little  to  do  with  thinl<ing ;  it  is  acquired  by  much  repeating, 
and  soon  becomes  lost.  The  second  is  a  process  of  memory 
which  is  based  upon  thinking.  What  we  have  seen,  heard  or 
felt,  what  we  have  smelled  or  tasted,  becomes  associated  with 
a  number  of  other  sensations  and  perceptions.  This  is  the 
higher  kind  of  memory.  Moreover,  the  word  "gedachtniss" 
(memory)  is  derived  from  "gedachten"  (thought  over)  from 
"denken"  (thinking).  The  first,  which  means  the  lower  form 
of  memory,  we  find,  as  already  said,  in  children;  also  in  some 
bright  animals;  also  in  some  idiots.  Some  of  the  latter,  for 
instance,  have  a  surprising  memory  for  figures.  Some  idiots 
repeat  the  same  thing  often  for  hours.  Gall^  saw  in  the  Vienna 
General  Hospital  an  idiotic  man,  whose  only  occupation  con- 
sisted in  counting.  He  always  stopped  at  99.  Gall  could 
never  induce  him  to  say  100;  he  always,  again  and  again, 
started  with  i  and  stopped  with  99.  Moreover,  the  idiots  who 
are  sometimes  found  in  insane  asylums  are  great  on  figures, 
but  do  their  calculating  only  mechanically  and  not  by  thinking. 
As  a  rule,  their  calculations  consist  in  multiplication,  and  addi- 
tion, but  they  seldom  understand  subtraction  or  division.  This 
good  recitative  memory  distinguishes  the  so-called  pluggers, 
who,  mifortunately,  are  often  considered  the  best  pupils.  It 
enables  them  often  to  pass  their  examinations  successfully,  and 
so  we  may  oljserve  that  pupils  of  a  low  grade  of  intelligence  are 
considered  as  the  best  in  their  classes;  sometimes  even,  on 
account  of  their  brilliant  examination  marks,  occupying  important 
positions  in  public  life.  In  school  and  in  the  university  they 
plugged;  in  life  they  imitate  the  faculties  of  others,  as  they 
have  none  of  their  own;  and  thus,  with  a  medium  Intelligence, 
these  mediocrities  not  rarely  attain  high  offices  and  position. 
From  this  class  geniuses  have  never  been  furnished. 


s  Gall,  quoted  by  P.  J.  Mobius,  Die  Anlage  zur  Mathematik.     Leipzig, 
1907,  S.  291. 


CHAPTER    XXXVI. 

Conditions  Required  for  a  Good  Memory. 

If  we  want  to  memorize  anything  we  must,  first  of  all, 
take  good  notice  of  it.  But  to  do  that  properly  we  must  give 
our  full  attention  to  the  object  which  we  see  or  to  what  we 
hear.  Some  things  will,  however,  excite  our  attention  only 
when  we  are  interested  in  them  or  they  are  stimulating  to  us. 
The  greater  the  interest,  the  greater  the  impression  which  such 
a  stimulus  from  outside  has  produced  upon  us,  the  more  force- 
fully will  it  be  incorporated  in  our  memor)^  We  have  men- 
tioned before  that  we  are  induced  to  think  simultaneously  with 
the  attention  we  pay  to  an  object  or  to  a  sense  impression,  and 
that  this  stimulates  the  blood-flow  to  the  brain.  We  also  said 
that  such  an  impression,  similar  to  that  of  an  electric  current, 
penetrates  into  the  nerve-cells  and  produces  plastic  changes  in 
these  cells  and  in  their  processes.  The  greater  such  impres- 
sions are  and  the  more  frequently  they  are  repeated,  the  stronger 
and  the  more  effective  will  they  be ;  the  impressions  will  become 
permanent,  and  consequently  be  stored  up. 

It  may  be  assumed  that  such  an  electric-like  nerve  current, 
when  it  passes  through  the  processes  which  form  the  contact 
between  the  various  nerve-cells,  brings  about  the  greatest  modi- 
fications in  the  nerve-cells  which  are  situated  directly  in  its 
pathway.  But  the  cells  in  the  neighborhood  will  also  feel  some- 
thing, although  less,  of  the  shock,  and  will  also  undergo  more 
or  less  changes.  This  will  find  its  expression  in  the  fact  that 
we  will  notice  best  the  main  characteristics,  which  means  the 
essentials  of  what  we  saw  or  heard.  If  we  are  impressed  with 
a  picture,  say,  for  instance,  with  the  sight  of  a  landscape  or  a 
portrait,  or  by  hearing  a  lecture  or  a  story,  the  side  points,  which 
means  the  side  lines  of  thd  picture  or  story,  will  be  less  well  re- 
tained, because  the  impression  is  less  strong,  and  will  also  be  less 
(294) 


Conditions  for  Good  Memory.  295 

well  stored  away.  Indeed,  we  actually  see  that  the  artists 
bring  out  in  their  pictures  more  prominently  the  main  features 
and  work  them  out  most  carefully,  whereas  the  details  of  scen- 
ery, the  environment  of  the  landscape,  are  not  brought  out  so 
precisely.  Only  in  the  paintings  of  the  primitive  artists  of  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  we  see  details  worked  out  with 
great  pains,  as,  for  instance,  the  hands  of  St.  Ursula  of  Koln 
in  the  pictures  of  Memling,  which  we  can  admire  in  St.  John's 
Hospital  in  Bruges.  But  we  see  something  similar  in  persons 
with  a  primitive  kind  of  thinking.  Children  and  fools  often 
remember  small  details,  and  we  have  already  mentioned  some 
examples  of  children's  ways  of  thinking;  how  they  pay  atten- 
tion to  minute  things,  just  because  these  excite  their  interest 
more.  In  some  women  it  may  also  be  observed  that  trifles  O'ften 
excite  their  attention  more,  and  such  women  may  also  be  more 
predisposed  to  a  narrow  way  of  thinking. 

That  the  insane  often  have  an  acute  memory  for  small 
details,  we  have  already  mentioned.  Here  I  would  like  to  relate 
a  case  which  came  under  my  own  observation,  which  shows  that 
some  of  the  insane  have  a  special  memory  for  locations.  In  the 
Insane  Asylum  at  -Nizza  I  saw  a  patient  67  years  of  age,  who 
suffered  from  persecutional  mania.  This  patient  acted  as  a 
bookkeeper  for  the  institution  for  over  twenty  years.  I  could 
never  enter  into  any  kind  of  a  sensible  conversation  with  him, 
but  this  fool  had  such  marvellous  memory  for  location  that  he 
was  able  to  locate  at  once  any  item  in  the  registration  book,  dat- 
ing years  back.  He  was  a  living  catalogue.  The  ability  to 
notice  small  details  may  sometimes  be  of  great  advantage  in 
recalling  greater  objects  by  incidents  which  may  have  been  con- 
nected with  these  details.  It  is  here  the  same  as  with  the  trac- 
ings of  a  detective,  who  sometimes,  from  some  insignificant 
detail,  finds  a  clue  to  the  discovery  of  a  looked-for  criminal ; 
small  traces  lead  him  to  find  greater  ones.  The  small  details 
are  associated  with  the  greater  things;  if  we  pull  on  the  little 
finger,  the  whole  hand  is  drawn.    In  a  like  manner  we  are  able, 


296  Human  Intelligence. 


by  some  small  things,  to  recall  greater  things,  which  have  been 
lying  buried  in  our  memories  for  years.  As  an  example  I  will 
relate  a  chain  of  thoughts  from  my  own  experience.  Last 
autumn  I  took  tea  with  a  Dutch-Indian  family,  who  are  friends 
and  patients  of  mine.  The  mild  tea,  with  its  agreeable  taste, 
reminded  me  of  a  similar  tea  which  I  drank  years  ago  on  a  tea 
plantation  of  a  colleague  of  mine,  at  Somerville,  in  South 
Carolina.  The  wonderfully  beautiful,  almost  tropical  landscape, 
reappeared  before  my  eyes,  and  also  the  "Pine  Forest  Inn" 
where  I  stayed  for  a  week.  It  also  brought  to  my  mind  the 
picture  of  the  full-blooded  horse,  Alice,  which  ran  away  with 
me,  and  that  she  was  trained  only  two  days  before;  also  that 
the  colored  riding  master  forgot  to  give  me  a  "curved  bit"  rein. 
This  made  me  think  of  the  docile,  broncho  horses  on  which 
I  rode  from  the  possessions  of  my  host  and  friend,  Don  Manuel 
Rivero,  in  Mexico,  near  Monterey,  Province  of  Nuevo  Leon,  to 
this  farm,  located  many  hundred  meters  high  in  the  mountains. 
This  reminded  me  of  the  town  Monterey,  with  the  old  Fonda 
Iturbe,  and  how  one  day  during  dinner  a  rat  chased  by  dogs 
ran  into  the  dining-room,  and  while  the  ladies  jumped  on  the 
chairs,  the  rat  was  killed  under  the  table.  Then,  again,  I 
thought  of  the  beautiful  possessions  of  my  friend  and  patient 
Rivero,  and  I  asked  myself  how  he  and  his  family  were  doing 
in  these  turbulent  times,  and  how  my  friend  and  colleague,  Dr. 
MacMeans,  in  Monterey,  was  doing.  I  also  thought  of  the 
patient  from  the  United  States,  whom  he  sent  me,  who  had 
charge  of  newspaper  agencies,  and  I  wondered  how  he  might 
have  gotten  along  during  the  revolutionary  struggles,  and 
v/hether  he  was  still  alive.  I  also  thought  of  how  another  of 
my  patients,  Mr.  T.,  in  Mexico  City,  with  his  six  beautiful 
daughters,  may  have  gotten  along.  I  also  recalled  that  he  was 
recommended  to  me  as  a  patient  by  the  late  Professor  G.,  in 
Berlin,  and  that  I  had  lately  met  a  lady  from  Berlin  who  knew 
that  family  very  well.  Thus  we  see  how,  through  association, 
one  picture  brings  back  to  Jife  many  others,  long  buried,  which 


Conditions  for  Good  Memory.  297 

would  have  otherwise  slumbered  for  years  in  our  museum  of 
old  memories.  Indeed,  what  a  wonderful  arrangement  of 
Nature!  And  how  useful  would  it  be  to  make  frequent  inspec- 
tions of  such  old  pictures  to  prevent  them  from  becoming  dis- 
colored and  faded  away. 

These  associations  of  various  subjects  are  also  of  great 
importance  when  we  want  to  get  a  good  impression  of  some- 
thing and  keep  it  in  memory.  By  linking  a  less  interesting  pic- 
ture with  a  more  interesting,  the  attention  is  more  excited,  and 
thus  their  fixation  and  retention  are  facilitated.  This  is  of  par- 
ticular importance  when  we  wish  to  help  children  in  memoriz- 
ing. A  child  thinks  concretely,  as  we  have  already  said ;  it 
knows,  in  general,  only  the  objects  which  surround  it,  and  it  is 
interested  only  in  things  which  seem  to  have  some  value  to  it, 
and  are  characterized  by  tastiness,  pretty  color,  lively  noise,  etc. 
It  is  for  that  reason  that  vivid  color  impressions  should  also  be 
used  to  develop  the  memory,  in  teaching,  as  we  have  mentioned 
in  other  parts  of  this  book.  A  child  also  shows  most  interest 
for  things  which  belong  to  it,  or  have  at  one  time  belonged  to 
it.  But  because  it  has  only  concrete  ideas,  whereas  abstract  ones 
have  to  be  taught  it,  it  is  an  egoist,  and  at  the  same  time  a 
materialist.  It  will  be  then  the  object  of  education  to  make  of 
the  materialist  an  idealist. 

As  said  before,  children  have  interest  in  things  which  they 
can  see,  touch,  taste,  which  they  like  and  can  also  have.  They 
observe  such  objects  best;  they  keep  them  most  easily  in  their 
memory,  and  it  is  the  easiest  for  them  to  recall  them.  When 
children  hear  something  which  they  do  not  understand,  they  nat- 
urally do  not  notice  it  as  readily;  they  become  weary,  and  their 
thoughts  wander  away. 

This  absent-mindedness,  which  occurs  very  often  in  chil- 
dren, is  a  great  obstacle  in  memorizing  and  learning  in  general. 
We  will  speak  of  this  later  more  in  detail,  and  here  I  would 
only  like  to  mention  that  I  distinguish  two  kinds  of  absent- 
mindedness.     The  first  one  is  caused  by  inability  to  pay  atten- 


298  Human  Intelligence. 


tion  to  any  kind  of  a  subject,  and  we  find  that  particularly  in 
children  who  are  sickly,  have  adenoid  vegetations,  are  anemic  and 
badly  nourished.  The  second  kind  is  caused  by  paying  too  much 
attention  to  one  subject,  and  thus  becoming  detracted  from  all 
others. 

The  first  kind  we  find,  besides  in  children,  most  frequently 
in  idiots,  who  try  to  memorize  what  they  hear  by  mechanically 
repeating  it.  What  they  have  learned  is  soon  forgotten  again, 
because,  contrary  to  the  memory  due  to  association  of  ideas, 
here  in  learning  no  conceptions  are  formed;  no  mental  pictures, 
with  their  essential  and  incidental  characteristics,  are  formed 
and  retained.  When  things  are  repeated  very  often,  even  in 
this  case,  what  has  been  learned  may  be  retained  in  memory  for 
many  years,  or  forever;  and  we,  indeed,  see  many  people  who 
are  able  to  rattle  down  long  Greek  verses  (the  meaning  of 
which  they  no  more  understand)  even  after  twenty,  thirty, 
forty  and  fifty  years;  and  this  is  an  example  of  the  brilliant 
effect  of  grinding  during  childhood.  Something  similar  we  see 
in  the  parrot.  As  an  example  I  would  like  to  repeat  here  the 
story  about  the  parrot  of  a  Dutch  physician.  Dr.  Lucas  Stev- 
ennick,  of  Middleburgh,  This  colleague  was  a  very  prominent 
political  figure  in  the  history  of  Zealand  during  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  He  had  a  parrot  which,  every  morning, 
when  the  doctor  came  downstairs  and  entered  the  dining-room, 
would  greet  him  with  the  words,  "  'Dag,  Dokter"  (Good  morn- 
ing, Doctor).  When  the  doctor,  on  account  of  his  political 
activity,  had  to  flee  (he  was  wounded  by  the  savage  mob  and 
had  a  narrow  esc9,pe  alive)  and  the  parrot  did  not  see  him  any 
more,  it  became  dumb.  The  bird  remained  silent  fully  eight 
years,  until  its  owner  was  permitted  to  return  home  from  exile. 
As  soon  as  the  doctor  entered  the  room  the  bird  opened  its  bill, 
which  had  been  kept  closed  such  a  long  time,  and  greeted  him 
with  the  old  exclamation,  "  'Dag,  Dokter."  I  came  across  this 
story  accidentally  in  studying  the  descriptions  of  the  life  his- 


Conditions  for  Good  Memory.  299 

tories  of  prominent  Zealand  physicians,  published  by  two 
colleagues.^ 

Some  intelligent  animals,  as  dogs,  for  instance,  must  have, 
however,  some  associative  memory.  Such  a  case  I  have  ob- 
served in  a  fox-terreir,  which,  as  is  well  known,  belongs  to  the 
more  intelligent  animals.  Christmas,  1897,  I  w^as  visiting  my 
friend  and  patient,  J\Ir.  Charles  W.,  in  Wirksworth,  Derbyshire. 
The  host  went  into  the  cellar  to  look  for  a  bottle  of  seventy-year- 
old  port  wine  in  honor  of  his  guests.  All  at  once  we  heard  the 
terrible  barking  of  a  dog.  What  was  the  matter?  The  host 
gave  us  the  explanation.  The  clever  animal,  about  ten  years 
before,  had  killed  a  rat  in  the  cellar,  and  every  time  he  saw 
anybody  going  to  the  cellar  he  barked  furiously.  The  rat,  which 
was  killed  ten  years  before,  was  supposed  to  be  the  last  in  the 
cellar,  and,  therefore,  the  excitement  of  the  dog  could  not  be 
attributed  to  any  sensation  of  smell,  revived  by  any  rat  which 
had  been  there  recently.  It  must  be  assumed  that  the  dog's 
process  of  association  was  reminded  of  the  wild  chase  of  ten 
years  ago. 

The  associative  memory  has  the  great  advantage  that  with 
one  grasp  a  large  number  of  pictures,  like  one  bunch  of  grapes, 
are  plucked  from  memory.  We  have  already  mentioned  that 
some  incidentals  may  remind  us  of  important  essential  charac- 
teristics ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  some  main  characteristics  may 
remind  us  of  side  pictures,  of  some  non-essential  details.  When- 
ever a  lady  looks  at  a  new  hat  which  she  wears,  she  is  always 
reminded  of  the  place  where  she  bought  it,  how  much  she  paid 
for  it,  the  name  of  the  salesperson,  etc.  But  such  associative 
memory  can  exist  only  for  objects  which  are  of  great  impor- 
tance to  us,  like  a  new  hat  is  for  a  luxurious  woman.  The  main 
feature  here  is,  as  already  said,  that  we  are  induced  to  think. 

The  thinking  which  is  necessary  for  reawakening  of  asso- 
ciative perception  pictures  is  the  cause  for  these  being  better 


1  Dr.  A.  Fokker  en  De  Man,  Levensberichte  van  Zeeuwscher  Medici. 
Middelburg,  1901,  S.  157. 


300  Human  Intelligence. 


noticed,  better  preserved  in  memory,  and  being  more  easily 
recalled.  These  three  processes  are  the  three  necessary  pre- 
requisites of  a  good  memory.  To  be  able  to  impress  something 
deeply  into  our  memory  and  dispose  of  it  at  will,  we  must:  i, 
notice  well ;  2,  preserve  well ;  3,  be  well  able  to  recall. 

\Yq  can  therefore  understand  why  that  which  we  have 
learned  slowly  is  retained  longer,  and  that  which  we  have 
learned  rapidly  is  quickly  forgotten.  In  the  first  case,  we 
remain  at  the  picture  until  we  get  a  distinct  idea  of  all  its  asso- 
ciations ;  in  the  second  case,  we  do  not  get  this.  For  this  reason 
children  forget  very  soon;  they  are  often  absent-minded,  show 
little  interest,  and  do  not  think  over  things;  neither  do  they 
possess  any  store  of  facts  from  experience  to  which  they  could 
link  associations.  The  child  has  not  yet  had  any  chance  to 
accumulate  in  its  memory  pictures  of  objects  seen  before,  w^hich 
would  enable  it  to  make  comparisons  and  associations.  Of 
course,  there  are  exceptions,  where  children  know  everything, 
notice  everything,  are  exceedingly  inquisitive  and  eager  for 
knowledge,  and  what  they  have  thus  learned  they  retain  until 
their  old  age.  A  brilliant  example  of  this  was  the  famous  scien- 
tist Ampere.  AA'hen  he  was  a  child  he  eagerly  read  everything 
through  that  came  his  way,  and  so  he  swallowed  the  twenty 
volumes  of  an  encyclopedia  which  he  found,  and  when  he  was 
an  old  man  he  could  still  recite  many  sentences  from  it,  word 
by  word.  Such  brilliant  memory  is,  of  course,  possessed  only 
by  geniuses,  by  the  great  minds.  Particularly  frequently  mathe- 
matical geniuses  have  such  wonderful  memories.  So  we  find 
it,  for  instance,  in  Ampere,  Thomas  Young,  my  countryman 
Bolyai,  Condorcet,  James  Watt,  and  others.  When  already  on 
his  death-bed,  the  geometrist,  de  Lagny,  could  remember  the 
quadrate  of  a  number,  and  when  jMaupertuis  asked  him  how 
much  is  the  quadrate  of  12,  he  answered  without  further  reflec- 
tion 144.  That  geniuses  have  such  a  good  memory  is  only  nat- 
ural, because  they  are  just  distinguished  by  this  ability  to  devote 
their  attention  in  the  highest  degree  and  continuously  to  one 


Conditions  for  Good  Memory.  301 

subject.  Of  course,  depending  on  the  vocations  and  occupa- 
tions of  each  individual  man,  the  interest  which  is  taken  in  a 
certain  subject,  and  therefore  the  attention  given  it,  would 
vary.  Corresponding  with  it  would  also  be  the  recollection. 
An  artist  would  notice  a  characteristic  detail  in  a  picture,  or  in 
a  landscape;  a  musician  would  notice  a  sound  or  a  tone;  a 
physician  would  notice  a  symptom,  and  all  three  of  them  would 
easily  recollect  those  respective  things  when  necessary;  and  at 
every  opportunity  they  would  be  able  to  recognize  them  again, 
while  everyone  else  outside  of  those  professions  would  surely 
be  unable  to  do  this. 

The  interest  which  we  take  in  an  object  would,  as  we  have 
already  mentioned,  not  only  make  it  possible  to  notice  and 
retain  the  picture  in  memory,  but  also  make  it  easy  to  recall 
from  the  storehouse  of  memory.  When  we  see  something  new 
which  differs  from  everything  else  which  we  have  known,  it  will 
strike  us  particularly,  and  we  take  great  interest  in  it.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  will  be  curious  to  look  at  it,  and  take  so  much 
more  notice  of  the  details  the  more  it  strikes  us  with  its  novelty. 
If,  then,  we  should  happen  to  see  such  a  picture  again,  even 
many  years  after,  it  will  look  familiar  to  us. 

The  same  is  the  case  when,  in  travelling  through  foreign 
lands,  we  meet  something  which  we  have  heard  or  read  about. 
It  awakens  at  once  our  particular  interest.  We  fix  this  picture 
forcibly  in  our  mind,  and  never  forget  it.  During  my  travels  in 
the  English  counties,  Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  undoubtedly 
the  prettiest  part  of  England,  my  attention  was  particularly  at- 
tracted by  the  beautiful  Celtic  crosses,  which  were  almost  one 
thousand  years  old.  Because  I  had  always  taken  a  particular 
fancy  to  all  that  had  been  reported  about  the  mysterious  Celtic 
race,  these  crosses  have  attracted  my  particular  attention,  and  I 
wandered  in  the  surroundings  of  Penzance,  Land's  End,  Cape 
Lizard,  for  hours  to  see  them.  These  brought  to  mind  the  re- 
markable similarity  of  the  language  of  people  so  widely  separated, 
as  Cymric  in  Whales ;  the  old  Celtic  language  of  Cornwall,  which 


302  Human  Intelligence. 


is  no  longer  spoken  there,  and  the  Gaehc  language  of  Scotland  ; 
the  language  of  the  Irish  and  the  Bretons  of  Bretagne  (in  Mor- 
bihan,  Calvados,  Finistere,  etc. )  ;  of  the  Basques  in  the  Pyrenees, 
where  I  remained  for  some  time.  And  then,  again,  came  to  my 
mind  the  mysterious  relation  between  the  language  of  the  old 
Aztecs  and  the  Basques,  of  the  similarity  in  the  language  of  the 
primitive  natives  of  Mexico^,  the  progenitors  of  the  Aztecs  (Tol- 
tecs,  Mayas)  with  the  idiom  of  the  old  Egyptians;  of  the  peculiar 
connection  of  many,  even  very  many  Welsh  words  with  the 
Greek,  as,  for  example:  Artanbread,  Arthos  in  Greek.  Thisi 
led  me  to  the  thoughts  of  the  peculiar  resemblance  of  so  many 
regulations  and  costumes,  as  for  instance,  the  head  attire,  which, 
according  to  a  photograph,  was  worn  by  the  Ethiopic  ruler  Em- 
peror Menelik,  and  which  resembled  that  of  Montezuma.  The 
Ethiopians  are  indeed  supposed  to  be  identical  with  or  related  to 
the  scattered  people  of  the  Pharaohs.  The  sight  of  the  old  Celtic 
crosses  brought  out  these  past  recollections  of  what  I  had  read 
and  seen  years  ago  without  investigating  whether  all  was  cor- 
rect or  incorrect. 

I  only  mention  this  here  to  show  how,  by  associative 
memory  or  recollection,  often  a  passionate  interest  may  become 
awakened  for  study  and  investigation  in  a  particular  direction. 

I  consider  this  as  very  important,  and  would  call  attention 
to  the  fact  that  mankind  is  often  under  obligations  to  such  acci- 
dental associations  for  its  greatest  discoveries  and  inventions. 
If  the  Gulf  Stream  had  not  brought  from  America  to  the 
European  coast  plants,  timber  and  other  things,  the  discovery  of 
America  by  Columbus  might  not  have  taken  place. 

Sophus  Lie  never  thought  of  becoming  a  mathematician. 
When  he  was  26  years  old  he  got  hold  of  the  works  of  Poncelet 
and  Plinker,  and  from  that  time  on  dates  his  great  passion  for 
mathematical  sciences,  and  when  a  man  works  with  passion  and 
with  greatest  interest  he  will  be  most  successful  in  obtaining 
best  results. 


Conditions  for  Good  Memory.  303 

The  great  interest  which  we  give  to  a  subject  is  the  reason 
why  we  see  it  better.  We  notice  then  a  good  many  things  which 
other  people  do  not  see,  and  this  is  of  utmost  importance  for 
impressing  something  in  our  mind,  and  for  remembering  it. 
Any  picture  which  we  want  to  incorporate  into  our  memory  we 
must  absorb,  the  same  as  an  artist  does  when  he  makes  a  paint- 
ing. First  we  must  notice  the  main  features  with  utmost  pre- 
cision and  the  side  features  or  the  characteristic  details.  The 
latter  in  particular,  because  it  may  happen  that  in  course  of 
years  some  of  the  main  features  will  vanish,  and  then  we  are 
able,  by  means  of  a  single  characteristic  feature,  to  recall  again 
the  entire  picture.  Everything,  therefore,  that  we  consider 
worth  while  to  retain  in  memory  we  must,  in  order  to  fix  it 
sharply,  look  at  it  as  long  as  possible,  about  in  the  same  way 
as  when  we  want  to  take  a  photograph;  and  when  we  see  such 
a  landscape  or  a  person  which  we  have  fixed  in  its  time,  even 
years  after,  we  are  then  able  to  recognize  it  or  him  at  once.  A 
good  memory  manifests  itself  by  the  fact  that  the  process  of  recol- 
lection is  a  rapid  one,  and  only  a  few  minutes  pass  between  the 
time  of  seeing  an  object  and  recognizing  it.  Anyone  who  has 
a  good  memory  would,  at  the  same  time,  be  reminded  of  some 
other  important  and  sometimes  even  of  unimportant  details. 
Sometimes  we  are  able,  as  already  mentioned,  from  accompany- 
ing, surrounding  details,  to  recognize  a  person,  but  when  the 
latter  is  separated  from  his  usual  surroundings,  and  the  milieu 
which  had  otherwise  given  a  support  to  our  memory  is  changed, 
then  the  recognition  becomes  much  more  difficult.  This  prob- 
ably explains  how  it  happens  that  when  we  know  a  person,  with- 
out knowing  his  name,  perhaps  by  sight  only  from  having  met 
him  on  the  street,  at  home,  or  in  Carlsbad,  or  Vienna,  we  do 
not  remember  where  to  put  him  when  we  happen  to  meet  him 
suddenly,  several  months  later,  in  Malaga  or  Lisbon,  or  some- 
where else  in  a  distant  land,  outside  of  the  usual  environment. 
The  face  is  familiar,  but  where  have  we  seen  this  lady  or  this 
gentleman?     Only  when  the  husband  or  the  wife  or  any  other 


304  Human  Intelligence. 


of  the  acquaintances  join  them  do  these  associating  details  help 
the  memory. 

If  we  want  to  remember  a  picture  very  well  we  must  Iook 
at  it  repeatedly,  even  very  often ;  then  so  many  more  details  will 
be  impressed  in  our  memory.  I  have  obser^^ed  this  in  myself 
with  an  experiment  with  the  kinematograph.  I  looked  in  the 
kinematograph  at  the  same  occurrences,  the  same  landscapes, 
the  same  scenery  quite  often  in  succession.  Notwithstanding 
that  I  watched  it  carefully  the  first  time,  I  saw  some  new  details 
on  the  second,  third  and  fourth  time,  which  I  could  fix  in  my 
memory.  Wq  know,  moreover,  from  experience  that  when  we 
read  a  book  several  times  w^e  find  every  time  something  new, 
which  we  did  not  take  notice  of  before. 

If  we  have  sharply  fLxed  and  perceived  an  object  in  all  its 
outlines  the  first  time,  and  besides  that,  have  looked  at  it  repeat- 
edly, it  will  be  so  much  easier  for  us  to  remember  it  well.  This 
is  the  fundamental  condition  for  a  good  memor}^  The  time 
required  to  recollect  something  will,  however,  be  not  alike  in 
every  person.  A  young  man,  even  after  years,  would  recognize 
in  a  second  a  picture,  fixed  in  the  above-described  way,  as  some- 
thing familiar^  seen  before,  and  will  also  remember  its  correct 
name.  An  old  man  would  have  more  difficulty;  he  would  have 
to  reflect  a  little  longer  where  he  has  seen  that  face  or  heard 
that  voice.  The  reason  of  it  is  that  the  blood-circulation  is  most 
favorable  in  a  healthy  young  man;  also  the  ductless  glands,  as 
the  thyroid,  for  instance,  the  importance  of  which  we  know,  are 
more  active  in  a  young  than  in  an  old  man.  If  a  person  is  dving 
and  the  heart  begins  to  cease  its  activity  and  the  blood-supply 
to  the  brain  is  lessened,  he  does  not  recognize  his  relatives  any 
more.  "When  we  are  sleepy  we  sometimes  do  not  recognize 
things  very  quickly,  and  cannot  recollect  things  so  vividly,  as 
in  the  early  morning  when  awakening.  In  the  first  instance 
there  is  a  slowing  down  of  blood-circulation  in  the  brain-cortex, 
the  blood-vessels  are  contracted,  but  in  the  last  instance  the 
blood-circulation  begins  to  be  very  active.     The  conditions  of 


Conditions  for  Good  Memory.  305 

blood-circulation  in  the  cortex  have  consequently  a  great  influ- 
ence upon  the  memory.  This  is  the  reason  why  sometimes  after 
great  emotions,  as  it  happens  occasionally  after  an  accident, 
events  which  have  occurred  in  childhood  arise  vividly  before  us. 
Ribot^  asserts  that  people  who  have  been  in  danger  of  drown- 
ing have  seen  their  whole  lives  passing  before  them  at  that 
minute,  and  even  also  with  great  acuteness  the  events  of  most 
remote  childhood.  These  pictures  of  most  various  deeds  emerge 
like  a  panorama,  and  are  accompanied  by  the  feeling  of  hav- 
ing done  right  or  wrong.  A  similar  assertion  has  been  made 
in  regard  to  opium  by  De  Quincey,  the  well-known  great  English 
writer,  who  was  addicted  to  the  use  of  that  drug,  in  his  "Con- 
fessions of  an  Opium  Eater."  He  says  that  in  one  night  he 
lived  over  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  years, — all  the  details 
of  his  childhood  and  forgotten  events  of  later  years.  Here,  too, 
belongs  the  case  of  Forl^es  Winslow.^  A  man  fell  between  the 
rails  and  a  whole  train  passed  over  him,  without  doing  him  any 
injury,  but  during  that  time  all  events  of  his  life  passed  before 
his  eyes  with  surprising  vividness.  The  same  conditions  have 
prevailed  in  the  fact  which  is  reported  by  Rush^  about  a  Luth- 
eran minister  in  Philadelphia.  The  minister  told  him  that  his 
old  Swedish  penitents,  when  lying  in  bed  very  ill,  and  becom- 
ing very  emotional  by  the  thought  of  approaching  death,  recited 
long  Swedish  prayers,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  they 
had  not  spoken  that  language  for  fifty  or  sixty  years,  and 
had  apparently  entirely  forgotten  it.  The  same  processes  are  at 
work  when,  during  the  death  agony,  often  the  parents  which 
one  has  not  seen  since  childhood,  are  called  for,  and  this  is  even 
done  by  old  people,  whose  parents  have  been  dead  many  years. 
It  has  been  observ^ed  that  during  a  battle  death-stricken  soldiers 
collapse  with  the  names  of  their  parents  on  their  lips,  even 
though   the   parents   are   dead.      It   generally   follows   that   to 


2  Ribot,  Les  maladies  de  les  memoire.     Paris,  1871. 

3  Forbes  Winslow,  quoted  after  Ribot. 

^  Rush,  Medical  Inquiries  and  Observations  of  the  Mind,  p.  277. 

20 


306  Human  Intelligence. 


every  man,  even  to  the  worst  one,  during  the  peril  of  death,  in  the 
death  agony  there  come  recollections  of  his  childhood  days,  and 
his  disposition  becomes  softened;  and  those  sentenced  to  death, 
even  grave  criminals,  call  the  names  of  their  parents  when  they 
are  being  executed,  as  I  have  observed  myself  in  two  cases. 
During  my  childhood  days  I  saw,  in  my  home  town,  Nagy- 
Kanizsa,  in  Hungary,  from  a  tree  in  the  garden  which  adjoined 
the  prison-yard,  the  execution  of  two  murderers.  When  they 
were  being  pulled  up  on  the  gallows,  the  first,  as  well  as  the 
second,  who  followed  him,  called  "Father,"  "Mother."  Im- 
pressed by  this  I,  then  6  years  old,  clenched  my  hands  in 
impotent  anger  against  the  executioner  and  damned  him  in  very 
expressive  words. 


CHAPTER    XXXVII. 

Causes  of  Weak  Memory  and  Its  Treatment. 

During  my  visit  at  the  insane  asylum  at  Nizza,  while  Dr. 
Pietri,  the  director  of  the  male  ward,  was  showing  me  around, 
one  of  the  insane,  a  pensioned  captain,  decorated  with  the  ribbon 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  came  forward  and  asked  him  for  per- 
mission tO'  go  out  and  collect  his  pension  of  365  francs.  Dr. 
Pietri  told  me  later  that  for  the  last  three  months  this  patient, 
in  a  most  unconcerned  way,  appealed  to  him  with  the  same 
request  every  morning.  He  repeated  it  from  day  to  day,  and 
could  not  remember  that  he  had  already  made  it. 

When  we  inquired  from  another  patient  in  the  same  ward 
what  he  had  had  for  breakfast  an  hour  ago,  he  answered  that 
he  had  two  eggs,  one-half  of  a  roasted  chicken  and  some  other 
delicacies,  which  certainly  never  appear  on  the  breakfast  menu 
in  a  State  asylum.  He  assured  me  of  that  in  such  a  natural, 
undeceitful  way  that  we  could  not  assume  that  the  wish  was  here 
father  to'  the  thought.  I  was,  moreover,  told  by  Dr.  Pietri  that 
this  patient  was  unable  tO'  remember  anything,  and  when  he  did 
recollect  something  it  was  in  the  wrong  form,  as  we  have  just 
seen.  Both  patients  suffered  from  the  gravest  form  of  mental 
diseases,  from  progressive  paralysis,  in  which  loss  of  memory 
is  also  manifested  in  its  gravest  form.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  in  this  disease  the  two  factors  which  are  injurious  to  the 
memory  are  working  together  in  their  highest  potency: — ■ 

1.  Disturbances  in  the  blood-circulation  of  the  brain-cortex, 
due  to  changes  in  the  blood-vessels. 

2.  Destruction  of  the  nerve-cells  and  nerve  processes,  the 
great  significance  of  which  for  the  memory  we  have  spoken  of 
before. 

Not  only  in  progressive  paralysis  do  these  changes  occur, 
however,  but  also  in  various  degrees  in  other  diseases  of  the 

(307) 


308  Human  Intelligence. 


brain;  for  instance,  in  senile  dementia.  It  is  characteristic  of 
paralysis  that  the  memory  becomes  progressively  weaker,  and 
no  thought  of  cure  can  be  entertained.  Sometimes  the  begin- 
ning of  this  dreadful  mental  disease  may  be  recognized  by  the 
fact  that  the  memory  gets  worse,  which  is  a  typical  diagnostic 
sign.  How  often  have  I  heard  from  such  poor  patients,  when 
I  have  asked  them  how  they  felt,  "Thanks;  very  well."  From 
this  answer  alone  I  could  draw  a  conclusion  about  the  nature 
of  the  disease.  This  feeling  of  well-being  may  be  due  to  the 
forgetting  of  all  that  has  happened,  all  bad  and  evil.  It  is  a 
charitable  act  of  the  Creator  to  wrap  the  mind  of  these  unfor- 
tunates with  a  dense  veil, — as  only  too  often  we  find  among 
them  men  who  previously  had  great  mental  powers,  such  as 
Nietzsche,  for  instance, — so  that  they  may  not  become  aware  of 
their  fearful  fate  and  the  suffering  of  their  families.  We 
should,  indeed,  be  thankful  to  Nature,  that  when  a  man  receives 
a  fearful  shock,  or  is  in  mental  agony,  or  suffers  from  an 
unbearable  grief,  mental  darkness  sets  in  and  charitably  spreads 
its  wings  over  him. 

In  the  case  of  Nietzsche  there  was,  in  the  beginning  of  his 
illness,  a  particular  feeling  of  well-being,  and  the  weakness  of 
memory  developed  very  slowly,  in  a  lingering  way,  as  is  very 
often  the  case  in  paralysis.  The  sudden  forgetting  of  an  im- 
portant intention,  of  an  old-accustomed  action,  of  an  urgent 
duty,  is  often  one  of  the  first  signs  of  the  malady. 

Syphilis,  which  is  the  fundamental  cause  of  this  disease, 
may  injure  memory  very  gravely  by  producing  also  other  brain 
and  nerve  affections,  such  as  arteriosclerotic  changes  in  the 
brain,  tumors  developed  on  a  syphilitic  base,  as  well  as  other 
changes.  All  these  disturbances  of  memory  are,  as  a  rule,  of 
a  progressive  nature,  and,  according  to  Ribot,  it  takes  place  in 
the  following  order:  memory  for  recent  events  is  lost  first,  and 
then  follows  loss  of  memory  for  occurrences  in  years  back.  In 
the  first  place,  general  conceptions  become  forgotten,  then  fol- 
lows loss  of  memory  for  feelings,  and  in  the  last  instance  recol- 


Causes  of  Weak  Memory.  309 

lections  of  actions.  The  law  of  retrogression  of  Ribot  shows 
that  the  loss  of  memory  affects  first  the  new  events,  then  the 
old  ones,  and  is  then  continued  automatically,  from  the  complex 
conceptions  to  the  simple  ones,  from  the  voluntary  acts  to  the 
involuntary^  It  seems,  therefore,  that  there  exists  a  general 
law  according  to  which  last-formed  association  connections  first 
become  destroyed,  and  memory  impressions  laid  down  long  ago 
follow  next.  Verses,  moral  teachings,  proverbs,  etc.,  which 
have  been  retained  in  memory  by  reciting,  are  lost  latest  of  all; 
this  is  probably  mainly  because  they  have  been  repeated  many 
hundred  times,  somewhat  as  is  the  case  with  prayers,  and  the 
latter  a  man  does  not  forget  even  on  his  death-bed.  What  we 
have  learned  in  school,  what  we  need  to  repeat  daily,  such  as 
languages  studied,  principles  of  various  scientific  branches, 
which  we  at  the  time  understood  well  and  have  repeated  num- 
berless times,  are  most  firmly  retained.  When  we  find  in  a 
patient  the  loss  of  even  such  firmly  laid  down  conceptions, 
words,  pictures  seen,  then  we  can  draw  the  conclusion  that  we 
have  to  deal  with  a  very  grave  disease,  which  has  affected  the 
nerve-cells  themselves  and  their  processes.  The  prospects  for 
a  cure  are  then  less  favorable.  Sometimes  grave  losses  of 
memory  may,  of  course,  be  of  a  temporary  kind,  and  in  course 
of  recovery  the  former  memory  may  again  be  restored.  We 
are  then  able  to  observe  how,  according  to  the  reverse  of  the 
above-mentioned  law,  as  a  rule,  the  last  thing  forgotten  returns 
first,  and  then  the  others  follow  in  consecutive  order.  Taine^ 
observed  the  case  of  the  Russian  astronomer  who  first  forgot 
the  latest  events,  then  those  of  the  last  year,  and  then  those  of 
former  years.  When  he  improved,  the  remembrances  of  child- 
hood returned  first,  then  those  of  his  middle  life,  and  only  in 
the  last  instance  those  of  recent  times. 

We  have  already  repeatedly  mentioned  how  much  the 
memory  is  affected  by  the  conditions  of  the  blood-circulation  in 
the   brain-cortex.      In   case   larger   areas   of   blood-vessels   are 

1  Taine,  De  I'intelligence,  t.  i,  livre  11 


310  Human  Intelligence. 


destroyed,  as  a  rule,  a  permanent  loss  of  memory  is  the  result. 
If,  however,  the  disturbance  in  the  blood-circulation  is  only  of 
a  temporary  nature  and  the  destruction  of  the  blood-vessels  is 
not  incurable,  the  memory  may  again  be  restored;  we  have 
then  to  deal  with  a  temporary  weakness  of  memory,  with  a 
temporary  amnesia.  Such  cases  may  originate  after  serious 
accidents,  whereby  the  blood-circulation  is  disturbed  by  the 
shock.  We  know  that  as  a  result  of  shock  the  blood-vessels  of 
the  abdominal  viscera  become  dilated  due  to  the  paralysis  of 
the  splanchnic  nerve,  and  only  very  little  blood  streams  to  the 
brain.  Memory  can  be  affected  very  badly  on  account  of  this, 
and  sometimes  it  is  as  if  cut  off,  so  that  recollections  from  child- 
hood, which  are  otherwise  retained  until  old  age,  are  lost.  Such 
cases  have  been  often  reported,  and  I  may  mention  here  a  case 
of  Forbes  Winslow.^  A  minister  was  thrown  out  of  a  carriage 
and  received  a  shock.  As  a  result  he  became  mentally  like  a 
child  with  a  natural  intelligence.  English  and  Latin,  which  he 
had  studied  before,  he  had  to  learn  again  from  the  teachers. 
A  few  months  later  the  languages  returned  to  his  memory  with- 
out any  interference  from  outside. 

A  similar  temporary  loss  of  memory  after  a  shock  was 
manifested  in  the  interesting  case  of  a  young  woman,  who  dur- 
ing the  birth  of  her  first  child  had  a  fainting  spell,  and  she  for- 
got everything  which  had  happened  since  her  marriage.  She 
even  pushed  away  her  husband  and  her  child. 

Such  temporary  losses  of  memory  are  not  rarely  connected 
with  epilepsy.  Take  the  case  of  Trousseau.  A  judge  read  a 
paper  in  a  scientific  society.  In  the  middle  of  the  reading  he  had 
an  attack;  he  walked  without  his  hat  to  the  wharf,  came  back 
again  and  continued  the  delivery  of  his  paper.  Besides  the  cases 
of  progressive  or  temporary  loss  of  memory  mentioned  above, 
which  are  either  incurable  or  the  cure  is  a  very  difficult  one,  there 
are  a  great  number  of  less  grave  disturbances  which  can  very 
well  be  cured,  or  considerably  improved.    Most  frequent  are  the 

2  Forbes  Winslow,  I.  c. 


Causes  of  Weak  Memory.  311 

cases  which  may  be  observed  in  conditions  of  degeneration  of 
the  thyroid.  For  instance,  patients  suffering  from  myxedema 
forget  very  easily  all  events  which  have  taken  place  recently, 
whereas  those  which  have  taken  place  in  childhood  remain  fresh 
in  their  memory.  That  we  are  dealing  here  with  changes  in 
the  thyroid  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  a  considerable  improve- 
ment may  be  noticed  when  animal  thyroid  is  administered  (see 
Chapters  XXI  and  XXIX).  To  this  domain  also  belong  weak- 
nesses of  memory  observed  in  old  age,  which  I  also  attribute  to 
a  degeneration  of  the  thyroid.  Old  people  also  remember  more 
distinctly  what  has  happened  during  their  youth.  They  have 
been  at  that  time  better  able  to  notice  events  and  retain  them; 
they  have  also  frequently  recalled  these  events  to  memory, 
w^hereas  they  were  not  able  to  fix  as  well  in  their  memory  recent 
events.  I  have,  however,  mentioned  in  "Old  Age"  that  degen- 
eration of  the  thyroid  is  not  necessarily  found  in  all  old  people ; 
and,  therefore,  we  sometimes  find  among  them  a  very  vivid 
memory,  not  only  for  events  of  their  younger  years,  but 
also  of  those  of  recent  date.  A  very  instructive  example  was 
old  Euler,  who  was  one  of  the  greatest  mathematicians.  He 
gave  instructions  in  arithmetic  and  geometry  to  four  of  his 
grandchildren,  and  to  instruct  them  in  extraction  of  radicals  he 
figured  out  in  one  sleepless  night  the  first  six  potentials  of  all 
numbers  below  twenty,  so  as  to  have  appropriate  examples  on 
hand.  He  also  retained  them  so  well  that  he  could  recite  them 
for  days.  He  was  then  76  years  of  age,  and  could  recite  the 
whole  "^neid"  from  beginning  to  end. 

We  find  very  frequently  also  disturbances  of  memory  in 
other  conditions  of  weakness  of  the  thyroid,  as  in  simple  h5^o- 
thyroiditis.  Memory,  for  instance,  is  very  often  affected  dur- 
ing convalescence  after  serious  infectious  diseases;  also  the 
power  of  perception  and  fixation.  When  we  find  weakness  of 
memory  so  often  in  the  changes  of  the  sexual  glands,  then  the 
thyroid,  which,  as  so  often  mentioned,  plays  here  a  great  role, 
also  participates.     Also  in  children  manifesting  signs  of  hypo- 


312  Human  Intelligence. 


thyroiditis — very  many  children  have  this — we  often  see  dis- 
turbances of  memory,  particularly  when  such  children  are,  as  is 
often  the  case,  sufifering  from  adenoid  vegetations.  We  observe 
then  great  forgetf ulness ;  the  power  of  perception  and  fixation, 
as  well  as  of  memory,  is  badly  injured. 

Very  injurious  for  the  memory  are  also  all  toxic  sub- 
stances which  injure  the  thyroid,  particularly  alcohol.  In  Kor- 
sakow's  disease,  which  is  caused  by  alcoholism,  we  find,  besides 
paralysis,  also  forgetfulness  in  highest  degree.  The  various 
sleep-producing  remedies,  which  lower  the  blood-pressure  and 
may  empty  the  blood  from  the  brain-cortex,  are  also  very 
injurious  to  the  memory.  That  the  memory  thereby  suffers  very 
much  is  evident  from  what  has  already  been  said.  Bromide 
particularly  injures  the  memorizing  process  very  greatly,  as  I 
have  observed  very  often  in  epileptic  patients  treated  with  that 
remedy.  If,  then,  by  administration  of  thyroid  we  obtain  an 
improvement  of  memory,  we  attribute  it  to  the  improvement  of 
blood-circulation  in  the  cortex,  due  to  the  thyroid. 

Injury  of  memory  we  also  find  in  various  bodily  ailments, 
in  which  pain  and  other  complaints  claim  very  much  of  the 
attention,  and  thus  disturb  the  perceptive  ability,  or  when  the 
production  of  toxic  substances  takes  place. 

It  can  be  easily  understood  that  if  anybody  has  an  intense 
headache,  he  cannot  perceive  anything.  The  same  is  true 
of  digestive  disturbances,  which,  as  is  shown  by  Plonnies,  act 
very  injuriously  by  means  of  the  toxic  substances  they  pro- 
duce.^ Very  frequently  we  observe  this  in  anemic,  chlorotic 
girls  and  women,  and  here  the  cause  is  also  poor  blood-supply 
of  the  brain-cortex.  Often  anemia  and  toxic  substances  orig- 
inated in  the  digestive  tract  work  simultaneously.  Plonnies 
observed  great  improvement  of  memory  after  digestive  disturb- 
ances were  cured.  I  have  been  able  to  observe  similar  effects 
in  my  patients  with  digestive  disturbances,  after  good  results 
with  mineral  waters. 


3  Plonnies,  Zeitschrift  fiir  Nervenheilknnde,  Bd.  xxxv,  S.  74. 


Causes  of  Weak  Memory.  313 

Great  disturbances  of  memory  may  result  from  protracted 
insomnia.  In  this  case  also  it  must  be  due  tO'  retained  toxic 
substances,  because  sleep,  as  already  mentioned,  is  a  process  of 
disintoxication.  Ranschburg'*  often  saw  the  perceptive  powers 
improved  markedly  after  purging.  In  general,  by  proper 
hygienic  mode  of  living,  we  are  able  to  influence  favorably  most 
disturbances  of  memory,  if  they  are  not  caused  by  some  organic 
changes  in  the  brain.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  necessary  to  attend 
to  the  improvement  of  the  blood-circulation  in  the  brain,  and  also 
to  take  notice  of  the  hygienic  hints  already  given.  Most  fre- 
quently we  find  disturbances  of  memory  in  neurasthenics,  the 
mentally  overstrained.  We  can  observe  often  in  students  that 
their  power  of  perception  and  fixation  is  impaired  when  they  pre- 
pare themselves  for  examination.  They  cram  their  heads  with  all 
kinds  of  junk,  and,  in  addition  to  that,  deprive  themselves  of 
sleep,  and  the  result  is  that  during  examination,  memory,  in  spite 
of  all  their  diligence,  forsakes  them.  Such  individuals  should 
always  be  advised  to  give  up  all  their  work  for  six  or  eight 
weeks,  and  take  a  rest  in  the  country  or  in  the  mountains.  It 
is  surprising  how  often  memory  improves  after  such  an  entire 
rest  of  the  mind  for-  several  weeks.  This  is  probably  alsoi  the 
reason  why  students  pass  their  examination  better  when,  during 
the  last  few  days  before  examination,  they  do  not  study  at  all, 
and  do  no  mental  work  whatever,  because  their  brain  is  then 
better  rested.  After  all,  examination  is  only  a  test  of  memory, 
or  a  test  of  what  has  been  retained  in  memory,  because,  as  Kant 
said :  "Tantiim  scimus  quantum  in  memoria  fenemus."  We 
may  have  learned  ever  so  much;  it  all  amounts  to  nothing,  if 
we  in  the  critical  hour  are  not  able  to  give  an  answer  to  the 
question  put  to  us  by  the  examiner.  Many  a  one  does  not  pass 
an  examination  just  because  by  filling  his  head  with  too  many 
details  he  injured  the  memory  very  greatly. 


4  Ranschburg,  Deutsche  med.  Woch.,  1912, 


CHAPTER    XXXVIII. 
Some  Hints  to  Facilitate  Memory. 

When  we  make  an  attempt  to  retain  in  memory  something 
that  we  have  seen  or  heard,  so  as  to  be  able  to  recall  it  at  any 
time,  we  must,  first  of  all,  distinctly  fix  that  given  person,  object 
or  event,  or  think  for  some  length  of  time  about  what  we  have 
heard.  At  any  rate,  we  must  make  a  stop,  eliminate  all  other 
thoughts  and  concentrate  all  our  attention  upon  the  subject 
which  we  desire  to  keep  in  mind.  First  of  all,  we  must  note  the 
essential  characteristics  and  details  of  what  we  saw  or  heard, 
because  this  facilitates  our  recollections  even  after  many  years 
have  passed.  So,  for  instance,  we  would  be  able  to  easily  recog- 
nize a  man,  whom  we  may  have  seen  at  one  time,  by  his  long, 
bushy,  black  moustache,  particularly  if  it  was  dyed,  and  more 
so  if  it  was  badly  dyed  and  had  a  greenish,  or  slightly  silver, 
or  reddish  hue,  because  this  was  the  thing  which  we  noticed 
most.  The  recognition  of  this  man  would,  due  tO'  that 
moustache,  be  made  easy,  even  after  many  years. 

Of  course,  we  would  first  be  able  to  remember  his  face, 
whereas  his  name  we  might  have  forgotten,  although  the  con- 
nection of  the  latter  with  a  peculiar  appearance,  may  help  us 
some  in  that  respect.  If,  however,  this  man  has,  in  addition, 
not  an  every-day  name,  but  one,  for  instance,  which  may  cause 
laughter,  we  will  recall  that  the  more  easily. 

If  we  want  to  recall,  however,  names  which  are  common, 
which  are  not  at  all  peculiar  in  themselves,  or  some  number,  we 
must  connect  them  with  some  objects  which  are  peculiar  or 
attract  our  attention.  When  once  in  Milan  I  wanted  to  look 
up  a  patient  and  a  friend  of  mine,  I  was  given  the  address,  45 
Via  Manzoni,  in  the  Palazzo  of  the  Count  Borromeo.  The 
recollection  of  the  number  was  facilitated  by  the  distinguished 
name  of  Manzoni  as  well  as  by  the  reference  to  the  very  pop- 
(314) 


Hints  to  Facilitate  Memory.  315 

ular  name  of  the  owner  of  the  house  in  which  my  friend  lived. 
When  we  are  giving  a  name  or  a  number  to  the  individuals  with 
weak  memory — old  people — we  must  proceed  in  the  same  way, 
connecting  them  with  familiar  persons  or  objects,  giving  them 
as  a  support  for  the  memory  a  few  more  details,  as,  for  example, 
that  the  given  person  is  a  son-in-law,  or  a  daughter,  or  a  well- 
known  person.  As  very  effectual  I  should  like  to  recommend 
the  following  method  which  I  have  tried  out  myself.  When  I 
hear  a  name  or  a  number  I  stop  in  my  thoughts  for  a  minute  or 
two,  and  then  I  repeat  what  I  want  to  remember  ten  times,  and 
in  this  way  I  strengthen  my  recitative  memory.  Then  this  name 
or  number  must  be  repeated  an  hour  or  two  later,  and,  in  the 
evening  before  retiring,  once  more.  The  next  morning  this  is 
done  again,  and  in  this  way  it  is  solidly  retained  in  the  memory. 
A  casual  repetition  of  it  some  time  after  is  to  be  recommended. 
If  we  want  to  impress  something  important  which  we  intend  to 
do,  it  can  best  be  done  in  the  same  way. 

If,  however,  we  are  not  able  to  recall  some  event  or  object, 
we  must  think  of  something  which  is  similar  to  it.  We  must 
try  to  reconstruct  the  conditions  of  the  case,  put  ourselves  in  a 
similar  situation,  and  then  attempt  to  find  some  characteristic 
features  which  resemble  what  we  saw  or  heard,  and  by  such 
associations  help  freshen  up  our  memory.  If  we  look  for  a 
name  of  a.  person  we  must  try  to  recollect  the  place  where  we 
have  heard  it,  the  other  persons  who  had  been  present  at  that 
time,  how  they  had  used  it.  Recollection  is  greatly  facilitated 
by  the  combination  of  events  which  have  made  on  us  a  deep 
impression,  be  that  agreeable  or  disagreeable.  When  I  served 
as  a  military  volunteer  I  was  once  punished  by  my  captain  for 
two  badly  sewed  buttons  on  my  blouse,  the  penalty  being  single 
arrest  for  two  days,  a  day  for  each  button.  The  darkness  of 
the  prison  had,  therefore,  considerably  strengthened  my  memory 
in  regard  to  the  necessity  of  sewing  the  buttons  on  better ;  even 
today,  after  many  years,  I  remember  this  event,  which  illus- 
trates the  proverb,  "A  man  becomes  wise  through  misfortune." 


)16  Human  Intelligence. 


Much  more  distinct  naturally,  as  already  mentioned,  are  the  recol- 
lections of  agreeable  events;  old  couples  remember  most  vividly 
the  time  of  their  engagement,  their  honeymoon,  because  these 
were  the  most  agreeable  to  them.  Such  agreeable  events  a  man 
may  recall  from  the  store  of  his  recollections  so  often  that  they 
will  remain  vividly  in  memory.  This  may  even  be  sometimes 
to  his  disadvantage,  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  forget  the 
picture  of  a  beloved  person,  for  instance,  of  a  wife  dead  for 
years,  or  of  dead  children,  so  as  to  avoid  excitement  and  the 
increased  blood-pressure  connected  therewith,  and  which  may 
injure  his  health. 

The  surest  means  to  aid  recollection  is  just  frequent 
recalling  to  memory,  frequent  repeating.  We  must,  therefore, 
endeavor  to  present  to  ourselves  time  and  again  the  essential 
features  of  a  picture  which  we  may  have  seen,  or  anything  we 
may  have  heard.  It  is  best  to  do  it  early  in  the  morning,  in 
bed  as  soon  as  we  are  awake  and  the  circulation  in  the  brain  is 
very  active.  If  we  then,  in  addition,  make  a  sketch  of  the  pic- 
ture or  take  some  notes  of  what  we  have  heard,  the  recollection 
will  be  made  easy  at  any  time.  The  taking  of  notes  is  only  of 
value  if  the.  slip  containing  the  name  or  number  is  often  con- 
sulted ;  this,  however,  is  often  neglected.  It  is  of  most  use  when 
such  clippings  are  kept  together,  so  that  when  a  name,  for 
instance,  is  looked  for,  one  is  obliged  to  see  all  other  names  and 
addresses  at  the  same  time. 

When  I  have  to  follow  a  lecture  delivered  so  rapidly  that 
I  am  only  able  to  take  notes  of  it  in  an  unreadable  hand,  so  that 
I  have  to  spend  considerable  time  during  the  days  following  to 
decipher  them  and  properly  rewrite  it,  I  find  that  a  lecture 
which  is  read  over  again  in  this  way  remains  in  my  memory 
forever. 

It  is  most  important  that  what  was  seen  or  heard  once 
should  be  recalled  not  a  week  or  several  days  after,  but  right 
the  next  day,  because  it  will  then  be  much  easier  to  memorize. 

The  most  important  requisite  is  that  a  distinct  and  well- 


Hints  to  Facilitate  Memory.  317 

defined  picture  of  what  was  seen  or  heard  should  be  perceived 
and  repeated.  The  stacking  up  of  two  or  three  pictures  at  one 
time,  or  of  too  many  details,  or  of  non-essential  characteristics 
can  injure  the  memory  very  badly.  One  should  make  it  a  gen- 
eral rule  not  to  overburden  himself  with  too  many  non-essential 
details.  If  we  compare  our  brain-cortex  with  a  blank  sheet  of 
paper,  upon  which  we  write  down  our  recollections,  it  would 
obviously  be  nonsensical  to  scribble  on  it  too  many  useless 
things.  These  can  only  hinder  the  inscription  and  retention  of 
important  events;  at  any  rate,  it  may  interfere  with  their  clear 
recollection.  Now  it  requires,  however,  a  certain  degree  of 
intelligence  to  sift  out  the  important  events  from  the  unim- 
portant and  the  essential  details  from  the  unessential.  The 
higher  the  intelligence  of  a  man,  the  quicker  and  more  readily 
will  he  be  able  to  recognize  the  essential  characteristics  of  a 
picture,  to  distinguish  them  from  others,  and  inscribe  them  in 
his  notes;  either  these  alone,  or,  according  to  their  importance, 
as  more  prominent  among  others,  and  fix  them  there.  First  of 
all,  it  is  necessary  to  have  an  acute  vision ;  one  must  have 
learned  to  see  well  and  distinctly,  to  correctly  discriminate  and 
find  in  everything  that  which  is  new  in  it.  Correct  sight,  upon 
which  our  discriminating  power,  our  clear  judgment  in  regard 
to  all  things  depends,  is  the  main  requirement  for  our  intelli- 
gence. Without  correct  sight,  and  also,  indeed,  without  correct 
hearing,  there  is  no  memory.  And  because  this  is  the  basis  for 
our  entire  thinking,  for  our  learning,  for  our  whole  knowledge, 
consequently  for  all  our  intelligence,  this  latter  naturally  de- 
pends, in  the  first  place,  upon  the  capability  of  our  organs  of 
sense.  To  develop  the  latter  to  the  greatest  possible  efficiency 
must  be  the  main  object  of  the  school. 


CHAPTER    XXXIX. 

The  Art  of  Forgetting  and  the  Cure  of  Bad  Habits. 

If  we  are  particularly  interested  in  forgetting  a  sad  loss 
or  a  great  misfortune,  we  must  proceed  in  a  manner  directly 
opposed  to  the  one  which  we  have  found  effective  for  retaining 
memorized  impressions.  If  I  want  to  remember  something  very 
well  I  must  recall  it  very  often  to  memory,  causing  thus  a 
strong  impression,  an  inscription,  as  it  were,  by  producing  a 
material  change  in  the  nerve-cells  of  the  brain-cortex.  Now,  if 
I  want  to  forget  something  I  have  to  use  all  possible  means  to 
prevent  such  an  inscription  being  graven  in.  If  it  is  already 
engraved,  I  must  try  in  every  way  to  have  it  erased.  The  best 
and  safest  way  is  to  simply  block  the  way  for  recollective  percep- 
tion, by  eliminating  it  as  perfectly  as  possible,  which  means  not 
to  think  of  it  at  all.  The  higher  the  will-power  of  a  man  is,  the 
better  will  he  succeed  in  eliminating  such  sad  and  unpleasant 
thoughts.  The  task  is  facilitated  by  avoiding  also  the  connective 
association  thoughts,  because,  as  said  before,  the  memory  is  pro- 
moted by  them,  and,  therefore,  prevented  from  forgetting.  If 
anyone  in  mourning,  through  the  death  of  a  member  of  the 
family,  removes  all  objects  which  remind  him  of  that  person, 
or  hides  them  away  securely,  and  takes  them  out  again  only 
after  a  certain  length  of  time,  when  the  memorizing  inscription 
has  been  erased,  this  grief  would  be  lessened  very  much.  It  is 
unfortunate,  however,  that  our  prescribed  customs  are  entirely 
unphysiological  and  unhygienic;  we  must  wear  black  clothes  for 
a  year,  and  avoid  all  pleasures,  theatres,  dinners,  etc.  This  is 
a  wonderful  method  for  retaining  mourning  associations  as  long 
as  possible,  and  keeping  open  a  wound  of  the  soul,  with  all  its 
paralyzing  effects  on  mind  and  body.  We  do  not  lack,  however, 
means  to  resist  such  sad  associative  connections.  We  must  try 
to  outdo  the  latter  by  still  stronger  impulses  of  an  opposite  kind ; 
(318) 


'Art  of  Forgetting.  319 


we  must  try  to  down  such  sad  feelings  by  still  stronger  feelings 
of  pleasure.     And  this  we  accomplish  best  by  following  the 
principle  of  supplanting  the  feeling.     This  is  based  upon  the 
physiological  phenomenon  that  a  very  strong  sensory  stimula- 
ing  sense  perception  wipes  out  a  weaker  one.     To  illustrate: 
If   I   look    into   the   sun   I    become    dazzled    for   a   time   and 
see  the  picture  of  the  sun  before  me,  with  eyes  closed,   and 
I  can  neither  see  nor  read  distinctly  when  I   open  my  eyes. 
When  I  eat  something  very  sweet,  dates,  for  instance,  and  after 
them  eat  an  orange  or  a  sweet  apple,  the  latter  do  not  appear 
to  me  to  be  sweet  at  all,  even  probably  somewhat  sour.     Un- 
doubtedly something  similar  does  exist  in  the  emotional  life.    A 
great,  heavy  loss  outweighs  another  less  great,  and  so  small 
troubles  are  not  at  all  conspicuous  in  the  light  of  our  greater 
ones,  and  are  easier  to  stand;  and,  then,  too,  a  sad  event  may 
be  overcome  by  a  pleasant  occurrence  which  follows.     If  we 
want  to  draw  practical  conclusions  from  the  foregoing  reflec- 
tions we   may   say   that   a   young  widow   should   be   urgently 
advised  to  marry  again,  because  this  is  the  best  way  to  forget 
the  first  husband  (provided  she  is  satisfied  with  the  second  one) ; 
and  a  girl  disappointed  in  love  should  be  advised  to  fall  in  love 
with  another  young  man.     And  if  the  wife  lost  a  fur  boa,  the 
husband  should  quickly  buy  her  another  one,  more  expensive  if 
possible.    Without  doubt  this  is  the  best  way  to  help  to  forget! 
Such  a  displacement  of  memorized  pictures  is  very  strongly 
influenced  by  the  degree  of  sensibility  and  the  will  of  the  given 
person.     The  more  we  feel  a  loss,  the  deeper  will  it  be  graven 
in  our  memory;  and  the  less  it  concerns  us,  the  more  superficial 
will  be  the  cause  of  the  memorized  inscription;  and  the  latter 
will  fade  away  so  much  sooner,  and  be  forgotten.     Now,  this 
sensitiveness  is,  to  a  very  great  extent,  under  the  influence  of 
the  will,  but  the  will  is  under  the  influence  of  the  intelligence. 
Will  and  intelligence  are  often  found  entirely  parallel  with  one 
another;  we  find  with  highest  intelligence  often  associated  the 
strongest  will,  and  geniuses  may  serve  as  lucid  examples  of  it. 


320  Human  Intelligence. 


Mentally  low  individuals,  such  as  idiots  or  feeble-minded,  have, 
as  a  rule,  no  will  at  all,  or  a  weak  one,  and  this  is  the  reason 
why  they  often  become  criminals.  Often,  nay,  as  a  rule,  their 
sense  perceptions,  that  means  sensibility  toward  impulses  con- 
trived by  the  sensory  organs,  are  weakened.  In  a  number  of 
mental  diseases,  sense  perceptions,  even  pains,  do  not  reach  con- 
sciousness at  all ;  still  less  soul-perceptions,  and  we  cannot  really 
speak  of  consciousness  in  such  individuals.  Just  because  the 
latter  does  not  exist,  pains  cannot  be  felt,  and,  therefore,  the 
mentally  diseased  often  eat  their  own  extremities,  an  example 
of  which  we  have  mentioned  before.  One  patient,  suffering 
from  softening  of  the  brain,  amputated  his  hand  with  a  knife 
and  a  metal  saw.  Others,  again,  pull  their  hair  out,  or  scratch 
their  faces ;  they  are  able  to  starve  for  days,  which  they  can  very 
painlessly  do,  because  no  suffering  is  produced  in  them  thereby. 
Such  a  lowering  of  sensitiveness  is  shown  also  in  many  hys- 
terics, as  already  mentioned.  In  some  of  the  revolutionary 
English  suffragettes,  who  starved  for  days,  hysteria  may  prob- 
ably have  been  a  contributory  factor,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  we 
should  not  forget  that  women  who  struggle  for  their  ideals  have 
the  ability  to  unfold  will-power  to  a  degree  entirely  unknown 
to  men.  One  may  be  inclined  to  assume  that  in  some  respects, 
for  instance,  in  resistance  against  sexual  impulses,  this  exceed- 
ingly great  will-power  is  implanted  in  them  by  nature.  Here, 
too,  rigid  education  plays  an  important  part,  the  object  being 
to  keep  down  or  entirely  destroy  some  impulses.  Many  women 
show  great  power  in  controlling  the  various  impulses ;  they  sim- 
ply ignore  the  sexual  impulse,  also  hunger,  and  do  not  allow 
them  to  reach  the  consciousness  at  all.  This  submerging  of  the 
sexual  instinct  into  subconsciousness,  and  the  forcible  subduing 
of  it  are,  as  already  mentioned,  not  rarely  the  cause  of  grave 
neurasthenia,  and  particularly  of  hysteria.  That  many  women 
succeed  in  this  way  to  guard  themselves,  not  only  against  sensa- 
tions of  the  soul,  but  also  against  bodily  pain  sensations,  is 
proven  by  the  thousands  of  women  who  become  adherents  of 


'Curing  Bad  Habits.  ^21 


Christian  Science.  They  simply  ehminate  these  temptations ; 
they  ignore  their  pain,  so  that  it  cannot  come  forward  and  thus 
make  a  deep  impression  upon  the  nerve-cell  of  the  cortex  of  the 
brain  and  become  fixed  and  retained  there,  and  being  revived 
make  itself  felt  in  a  disagreeable  form,  as  the  impulses  gen- 
erally do.  The  latter  is,  for  instance,  the  case  with  the  s^exual 
instinct  in  men,  and  in  many  women  living  under  normal  condi- 
tions. 

Education  often  accomplishes,  in  a  masterly  way,  the 
restraining  of  such  impulses  in  young  girls,  and  great  results 
are  obtained  in  this  respect,  particularly  in  the  novices  of  the 
nuns,  and  in  their  educational  institutions.  Of  course,  nature 
or  natural  predisposition  must  help  here.  In  a  case  of  predis- 
position, where  passion  is  seething  like  a  volcano,  the  most 
rigorous  education  would  be  fallacious.  It  is  a  very  hard  mat- 
ter to  restrain  passions  and  to  cure  bad  habits.  Properly  speak- 
ing, a  passion,  a  bad  habit,  is  nothing  else  but  a  too  good 
memory.  If  a  stimulus  and  the  act  caused  by  it  are  repeated  in 
the  -same  fashion  frequently,  day  after  day,  sometimes  hundreds 
of  times,  they  will,  in  course  of  years,  produce  a  very  deep 
impression  upon  the  nerve-cells.  Such  acts  may  then  be  accom- 
plished without  participation  of  consciousness,  automatically  so 
to  speak.  They  indeed  then  become  a  habit.  In  this  way  good 
as  well  as  bad  acts  may  become  a  habit.  The  earlier  in  life 
such  habits  appear  and  the  longer  they  are  indulged  in,  the 
deeper  they  become  impressed  in  memory.  Bad  habits  may 
then,  in  course  of  years,  become  so  deeply  engraved  that  they 
resemble  the  carving  of  wood  with  a  chisel.  Now,  as  the  art 
of  forgetting  consists  in  wiping  out  such  impressions  or  making 
them  fade  away,  it  is  evident,  therefore,  how  difficult  this  task 
may  be  with  old  habits  which  are  so  rooted  in  as  to  become  second 
nature.  Consequently,  the  most  rational  thing  is  to  prevent 
such  bad  or  inappropriate  actions  from  becoming  a  habit  dur- 
ing childhood,  and  thus  be  retained  in  memory,  and  this  is  the 
task  of  a  good  education.    It  is  the  object  of  the  latter  to  teach 

21 


322  Human  Intelligence. 


good  actions  and  habits,  and  have  them  graven  in  memory  by 
continuous  practice;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  prevent  the 
opposite.  If  these  are  already  estabhshed,  it  is  necessary  to  use 
all  possible  means  to  forget  them.  This  can  be  accomplished 
by  the  means  outlined  above.  Bad  impressions  and  actions 
should  never  be  allowed  to  become  established  by  repetitions; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  all  associative  connections  with  them 
should  be  discontinued.  It  is  obviously  necessary  that  children 
of  drunkards  and  habitual  criminals  be  removed  from  pernicious 
environment;  and  they  should  also  not  visit  moving-picture 
places  where  such  pernicious  acts  are  shown.  It  would  be 
good,  on  the  contrary,  to  use  the  above-mentioned  principle  of 
replacement,  and  by  good  actions,  by  presenting  and  setting 
good  examples,  to  drown  the  bad  ones  and  suppress  them. 
Teaching  good  examples  and  engraving  them  indelibly,  as  with 
an  iron  pen,  into  the  memory  by  continued  repetitions  daily  for 
years,  thus  preventing  the  inscription  of  bad  ones,  must  be  con- 
sidered as  the  fundamental  object  of  every  education.  Nat- 
urally very  much  depends  upon  the  individuality  of  the  child, 
its  hereditary  disposition,  its  will-power  and  intelligence.  The 
latter  are,  however,  developed  very  little  in  the  child,  and  can 
be  appealed  to-  only  in  the  adult.  Of  course,  it  requires  a  sub- 
stantial amount  of  will-power  and  considerable  intelligence  to 
obliterate  confirmed  habits.  Very  often  the  necessity  for  absti- 
nence becomes  compulsory  to  the  inveterate  smoker  and  drinker, 
and  then  he  feels  as  if  it  were  a  knife  at  his  throat.  The  hard- 
est period  of  abstinence  is  at  the  beginning,  because  during  this 
time  the  memory  of  the  sparkling  wine,  the  blue  smoke  of  the 
cigar  and  the  comfortable  mood  produced  by  them  are  still  very 
vivid.  Gradually,  however,  this  feeling  fades,  just  like  the 
memory  of  a  dear  departed  friend,  and  time  heals  the  wound. 
In  this  manner  the  erasure  on  the  slate  of  memory  is  accom- 
plished. 

Here,  also,  the  avoidance  of  association  aids  in  forgetting. 
One  should  avoid  dinners  and  receptions,  and  pass  by  restaurants 


Curing  Bad  Habits.  323 


where  best  drinks  may  be  had.  One  should  even  shun  the 
streets  where  there  are  any,  as  a  punishment  for  not  having- 
done  tilings  in  moderation  in  the  past.  And  the  former  heavy 
smokers  must  now  also  eat  less,  so  that  they  may  not  miss  the 
after-dinner  cigar  too  greatly,  which  tastes  so  good  after  a 
heavy  meal  while  comfortably  seated  in  an  armchair.  The 
more  frugal  meal  will,  moreover,  also  benefit  their  hardened 
arteries.  Many  stout  people  are  in  the  habit  of  sleeping  after 
meals,  but  in  connection  with  the  treatment  for  obesity  they 
must  avoid  the  soft  armchair,  because  it  furnishes  too  great  a 
temptation  to  sleep. 

The  curing  of  bad  habits  which  have  their  origin  in  our 
instincts,  such  as  hunger  and  sexual  impulses,  is  most  probably 
the  most  difficult  of  all.  It  is  peculiar  that  in  cases  where  the 
instinct  is  extinguished  and  has  ceased,  memory  takes  its  place 
and  from  force  of  habit  demands  action.  In  the  case  of  old 
people,  the  sexual  instinct  is  often  extinguished,  but  the  remem- 
brance of  the  same  continues  and  insists  on  its  execution.  Asso- 
ciated connections  in  the  same  field,  then,  awaken  old  memories 
with  ease.  If  one  has  lost  the  appetite  through  illness,  there  is, 
nevertheless,  a  desire  to  eat  at  noon,  even  though  no  appetite  is 
apparent,  and  the  same  thing  holds  true  if  one  is  invited  to 
dinner  and  sits  among  a  circle  of  friends.  It  is  just  the  power 
of  habit  to  which  many  people  are  slaves,  and  to  which  they 
do  homage. 


VII.    RATIONAL  MENTAL  WORK. 


CHAPTER    XL. 
Rational   Learning   and    Studying. 

Tantum  scimus,  quantum  in  memoria  tenemus. 

— Kant. 

The  main  object  of  learning  is  to  so  impress  upon  us 
everything  that  we  have  read  or  heard,  that  we  may  be  able  at 
any  time  to  recall  it,  and  make  a  practical  application  of  it. 
Certain  principles  which  we  have  learned,  fundamental  truths, 
must  be  so  fastened  in  our  memory  that  they  become  second 
nature,  as  it  were,  and  are  at  our  disposal  at  any  time,  day  or 
night.  Such  elementary  truths  we  can  acquire  best  by  numer- 
ous repetitions,  therefore  by  recalling  it  very  frequently.  A 
careful  retention  of  what  was  learned  is  of  utmost  importance, 
because  the  knowledge  acquired  by  reading  and  listening,  or  by 
daily  experience  and  observation,  must  form  the  foundation  for 
building  up  of  all  our  opinions  and  conclusions.  By  learning 
and  acquiring  more  every  day,  the  border  lines  of  our  circle  of 
mental  vision-  naturally  also  become  wider,  and  by  voluntary 
or  involuntary  acquisition  of  new  impressions,  thus  adding  new 
knowledge  to  the  old,  our  horizon  grows.  Thus  man  learns 
continuously  until  the  end  of  his  life;  we  remain  pupils  in  the 
school  of  life  until  the  last  day  of  our  presence  on  earth.  We 
note  and  learn  those  things  best  which  our  own  experience 
teaches  us  practically,  but  we  must,  however,  also  appropriate 
the  knowledge  and  experience  of  others;  and  also  that  which 
our  predecessors  of  hundreds  of  years  ago  have  acquired,  col- 
lected and  bequeathed  to  us;  thus  we  enrich  our  experience. 
Learning  means,  therefore,  storing  up  of  experiences  gained  by 
one's  self  and  by  others.  To  the  knowledge  which  was  gained 
by  our  forefathers,  to  their  discoveries  and  inventions,  we  then 
add  our  own  share.  According  to  Descartes  the  object  of  learn- 
(324) 


Rational  Learning.  325 


ing  is  to  enable  us  to  form  a  proper  opinion  about  everything 
which  we  may  happen  to  meet  in  life. 

If  we  want  to  acquire  knowledge,  we  can  only  obtain  it  by 
diligent  and  attentive  learning.  Diligence  and  attention  are,  as 
we  have  already  said,  the  main  prerequisites  for  it.  It  is  nat- 
ural that  what  we  want  to  learn  we  must  also  understand 
very  well.  The  latter  is,  however,  not  absolutely  necessary, 
because  by  diligence  we  can  learn  sometimes,  verbatim,  by  heart, 
what  we  do  not  understand  at  all;  but  this  we  call  grind- 
ing, and  is  the  way  children  and  less  intelligent  people  learn. 
But  such  a  way  of  learning  has  also  the  great  disadvantage  that 
it  is  not  economical,  and  is  a  waste  of  time.  Sometimes  it  is 
also  difficult,  and  as  it  very  soon  causes  overexertion  and 
fatigue,  it  is,  therefore,  alsO'  not  hygienic.  In  addition  comes 
the  bad  effect,  that  what  was  acquired  by  grinding  can  only  be 
retained  for  any  length  of  time  by  being  continually  repeated. 
Considering,  moreover,  that  we  have  to  retain  in  our  memory 
a  good  many  other  important  things,  it  is  of  very  little  use  and 
means  an  overburdening  of  our  memory  to  retain  there  as  use- 
less ballast  things  which  we  do  not  understand,  and  have 
acquired  only  by  grinding.  Such  things  are  plugged  in  by 
recitation,  and  are  to  be  used  once  only,  namely,  during  the 
examination  for  which  they  were  prepared;  after  the  examina- 
tion is  over  such  things  are,  fortunately  for  the  pupil,  very  soon 
forgotten. 

If,  therefore,  we  want  to  note  something  well,  we  must 
first  try  to  understand  it.  A  great  number  of  experiments  made 
Meumann,^  Ebert  and  Kraemer^  prove  that  what  is  learned 
in  a  sensible  way  is  least  trouble,  Kraemer  had  one  group  of 
individuals  learn  the  history  of  Kohlhaas  by  Kleist;  another 
group  some  sections  from  the  philosophical  writings  of  Locke, 
whereby  it  was  necessary  to  pay  attention,  not  only  to  the  mean- 


1  E.  Meumann,  Okonomie  und  Technik  des  Gedachtnisses.    Leipzig,  1912. 

2  Dr.  N.  Kraemer,  Experimentelle  Untersuchungen  zur  Erkenntnis  des 
Lernprozesses.    Leipzig,  1912. 


326  Human  Intelligence. 


ing  of  a  sentence,  but  also  to  its  logical  connection;  and  finally 
a  third  group  had  to  learn  some  entirely  senseless  and  uncon- 
nected description,  such  as  one  of  an  oil  mill  found  in  Pompeii. 
It  was  found  that  the  very  sensible  story  by  Kleist  was  learned 
much  more  easily,  greater  difficulties  were  encountered  with  the 
discourses  by  Locke,  but  most  difficult  were  the  technical 
descriptions. 

From  the  investigations  by  Binet  and  Henri^  it  appears  that 
children  retain  words  twenty-five  times  quicker  when  the  words 
are  given  to  them  in  form  of  sensible  sentences.  We  can  under- 
stand these  results  very  well  after  the  above  discussion,  because 
a  subject  can  stimulate  our  interest  and,  consequently,  our  atten- 
tion only  when  there  is  some  sense  in  it.  In  this  instance,  also, 
takes  place  a  blood-flow  to  the  brain-cortex,  and  an  increased 
activity  of  the  nerve-cells.  Similarly,  the  desire  to  learn  in- 
creases. Kraemer  also  calls  attention  to  the  disgust  which  he 
noticed  in  the  individuals  of  his  experiments  when  they  were 
compelled  to  learn  the  senseless  sentences.  Moreover,  desire 
and  disgust  are  very  important  factors  for  the  blood-circulation 
in  the  brain,  as  has  been  shown  by  the  investigations  of  E. 
Weber.  The  feeling  of  desire  caused  a  better  blood-supply  to 
the  brain.  The  disposition  of  one  who  learns  is  therefore  of 
the  greatest  importance.  Learning  can  be  earnest  and  success- 
ful, and  the  subject  can  be  retained  only  when  the  pupil  or  the 
student  feels  "fresh,  cheerful  and  free,"  and  is  not  distracted 
by  cares,  anxiety  or  fear,  for  instance,  of  punishment  to  be 
expected.  I  am  quite  unable  to  understand  how  interest  can 
be  awakened  for  a  dry  subject  "by  compulsory  learning."  Pa- 
rents and  teachers  should  consider  as  their  main  concern  the 
creation  in  the  children  of  a  cheerful  disposition  toward  learn- 
ing. It  would,  therefore,  be  best,  in  learning  something  special, 
to  make  a  cursory  review  by  reading  over  the  whole  matter  and 
getting  an  idea  of  the  subject;  while  doing  this  an  effort  be 


3  Binet  et  Henri,  L'anne  psychologique,  i.  1895.    La  memoire  des  mots 
et  des  phrases. 


Rational  Lcarninc,.  327 


make  to  grasp  the  main  point,  the  leading  thought  which  passes 
through  the  whole  subject.  In  this  way  the  connection  between 
the  various  parts  becomes  clear,  and  this  is  of  greatest  impor- 
tance, because  it  requires  more  trouble  and  more  work  to  write 
a  good  treatise  on  disconnected  material.  If  there  are  several 
leading  thoughts,  each  one  must  naturally  be  worked  out  sep- 
arately, and  this  would  naturally,  because  of  more  thinking 
required,  take  more  time. 

When  we  succeeded  in  impressing  upon  the  mind  the  main 
points  of  the  subject,  we  have  laid  the  foundation  of  the  building 
of  our  future  work.  If  we  have  to  study  some  special  and  elab- 
orate subject  which  we  want  to  use  as  a  base  for  some  further 
research,  and  we  are  not  at  all  familiar  with  it,  it  may  be 
recommended  as  practical  to  study  first  a  short  textbook  on  the 
subject,  or  even  an  article  in  a  large  encyclopedia  in  which  the 
essentials  are  briefly  treated.  In  this  way  we  grasp  easily  and 
without  trouble  the  main  points  of  our  thesis.  As  a  next  step 
it  would  be  advisable  to  study  a  number  of  textbooks  and  spe- 
cial treatises  in  such  a  way  that  we  proceed  from  the  more  com- 
prehensive to  the  more  voluminous,  and  ultimately  to  the  largest 
monographs  and  handbooks  on  the  subject.  It  is  also  of  great 
advantage  to  read  over  treatises  of  various  authors  on  the  same 
subject.  If  we  want  to  engage  ourselves  with  the  subject  very 
thoroughly,  we  must  interest  ourselves  also  with  the  bordering 
subjects,  because  this  would  widen  our  views  and  increase  our 
thinking  ability  on  that  special  subject.  From  the  more  varied 
points  of  view  we  look  at  it,  the  more  will  we  notice  new  sides 
and  features,  and  will  become  familiar  with  them.  Only  by 
going  deeply  into  a  subject  are  we  able  to  obtain  great  results. 
First  of  all,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  greatest  interest  in  the 
matter;  only  then  are  we  able  to  produce  something  ex:traor- 
dlnary,  reaching  out  above  the  average.  When  we  deal  with  our 
subject  day  and  night,  as  it  were,  always  think  of  it  and  always 
try  to  discover  some  new  feature  which  did  not  strike  previous 
observers.     Generally  speaking,  everyone  who  takes  a  hold  of 


328  Human  Intelligence. 


some  idea  should,  at  least,  have  the  will  to  accomplish  something 
extraordinary.  If  he  is  animated  with  a  distinct  desire  for  the 
work,  he  will  always  accomplish  the  greatest  possible  result, 
according  to  his  knowledge  and  ability.  And  should  his  re- 
sources desert  him,  his  work  will,  nevertheless,  show  signs  of 
an  earnest  desire,  and  will  command  for  him  the  respect  of 
qualified  judges. 

If  we  are  concerned  with  something  practical,  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  become  acquainted  with  it  by  our  own 
initiative,  because  only  in  this  way  we  gain  the  proper  eye- 
measurement,  and  also  the  right  perception  of  the  object — as 
already  mentioned,  there  can  be  no  rational  thinking  without 
it — and  only  in  this  way  can  it  be  retained  in  our  memory  for 
a  long  time.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  are  concerned  with  some 
theoretical  subject,  we  must  get  a  vivid  idea  of  it,  because  we 
can  never  understand  anything  if  we  lack  the  perception  of  it. 
Otherwise  it  results  in  grinding,  which  is  practised  particularly  by 
pupils  who  are  too  lazy  to  think,  and  also  incapable  of  so  doing. 

After  we  understand  our  subject  well,  we  have  to  read  it 
over  again  a  few  times  to  grasp  it  still  better.  It  is  of  advan- 
tage to  have  the  main  points  written  down  on  small,  handy 
cards.  A  very  effective  method  which  I  can  recommend  is  to 
write  down  from  memory,  what  was  read  or  learned  one  or  two 
days  later,  and  then  compare  it  with  the  original  text.  If  we  find 
then  something  left  out  or  misunderstood,  things  thus  corrected 
or  added  will  remain  permanently  in  our  memory.  According 
to  my  experience  memory  may  also  be  strengthened  by  reading 
what  is  written  by  different  authors;  hereby  we  find  the  same 
point  confirmed  and  repeated,  and  thus  interpreted  from  differ- 
ent points  of  view;  and  thus  repeated,  and  in  different  words,  it 
will  remain  so  much  better  in  our  memory.  To  master  a  subject 
from  all  its  sides,  theoretical  as  well  as  practical,  is  the  highest 
goal  of  learning. 

Because  we  can  actually  learn  something  w^ell  when  we 
read  with  interest  and  attention,  the  first  step  in  learning  and 


Rational  Learning.  329 


studying  something,  even  that  which  appeared  to  us  in  the 
beginning  very  uninteresting,  very  difficult  and  dry,  consists  in 
an  attempt  to  find  in  it  some  interesting  feature.  This  would 
be  most  easy  if  the  knowledge  is  of  some  practical  value  to  us. 
Without  intending  to  deny  the  great  importance  of  a  congenital 
disposition,  it  is  my  opinion  that  an  intelligent  man,  if  he  only 
earnestly  wishes,  may  accomplish  something,  even  above  the 
average,  in  the  most  variable  domains.  The  fundamental 
requirement  is  that  he  should  begin  to  interest  himself  deter- 
minedly in  the  subject,  and  to  incorporate  everything  which  is 
connected  with  it.  Furthermore,  there  should  be  nothing  con- 
nected with  it  which  goes  directly  contrary  to  his  congenital 
disposition.  If  one  does  not  have  the  slightest  disposition  for 
mathematics  or  for  languages,  for  the  first  in  particular,  neither 
his  best  will  nor  his  greatest  interest  can  be  of  any  practical 
benefit  to  him.  Whether  a  real  genius  does  not  form  an  excep- 
tion in  this  respect  I  do  noc  dare  to  decide. 

Only  one  thing  seems  to  be  certain  to  me,  and  that  is,  that 
anyone  who  approaches  a  subject  with  an  earnest  desire  and 
greatest  interest,  passionately  devotes  himself  to  it,  thinks  of  it 
day  and  night,  will  ultimately  accomplish  something  great  in  it. 
He  would  then  also  be  fitted  to  transmit  what  he  had  thus 
learned  and  acquired,  in  word  and  script,  to  others.  This  is  the 
best  material  from  which  professors  can  be  carved. 

According  to  all  these  preliminary  reflections  the  actual 
process  of  learning  would  be  the  following.  First,  we  must 
acquaint  ourselves  with  the  subject  by  looking  it  over  once  or 
twice  to  find  out  what  it  actually  is  about,  and  at  the  same  time 
noting  the  leading  thought.  Next  we  should  read  it  over  several 
times  and  get  the  impression  of  the  main  points;  and,  in  my 
opinion,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  at  once  underline  the  respective 
places,  and  at  the  end  of  the  book  indicate  these  with  some 
marks,  or  to  make  a  short  concept,  in  a  few  words,  on  the  upper 
border.  Finally  comes  the  learning  by  heart,  by  frequent  recita- 
tions, five,  ten,  fifteen  times,  according  to  necessity. 


330  Human  Intelligence. 


The  learning  itself  consists  of  two  main  phases:  i,  pene- 
trating into  the  subject,  by  repeatedly  reading  it  over  with 
attention;  2,  learning  by  heart  by  repeated  recitations.  One 
helps  the  other.  The  first  sharpens  the  associative  memory,  the 
second  the  recitative,  mechanical  memory.  Who  passes  through 
both  phases  masters  his  subject  best.  For  most,  if  not  for  all, 
children  the  first  is  the  more  difficult ;  therefore,  they  occupy 
themselves  more  with  learning  by  heart  without  first  under- 
standing it ;  therefore,  with  grinding.  Children  learn  this  much 
easier  than  adults;  often  they  learn  very  rapidly  this  way,  but 
what  is  learned  is  also  quickly  forgotten.  This  is  only  natural, 
because  there  are  no  associative  connections  to  help  the  memory. 


CHAPTER    XLI. 

The  Influence  of  Age  upon  the  Ability  to  Learn — 
Learning  as  Done  by  Children  and  by  the  Old. 

A  child  generally  learns  everything  very  easily  by  repeti- 
tion. As  a  rule,  it  does  not  take  any  pains  at  all  to  understand 
what  it  hears;  it  babbles  about  everything,  and  in  this  way 
learns  its  mother  tongue.  This  process  is  continued  through 
the  first  years  of  life,  and  in  this  way  the  child  acquires  best  the 
method  of  learning  by  recitation.  A  child  retains  readily  what 
is  learned  that  way,  as,  for  instance,  prayers,  which  are  learned 
in  childhood,  are  still  remembered  in  old  age.  Entirely  different 
is  the  process  of  learning  in  mature  age.  Already  the  feeling 
of  disgust,  which  becomes  manifest  at  this  age,  makes  one  unfit 
to  learn  anything  in  a  senseless  way.  We  see  something  similar 
also  among  intelligent  classmates,  when,  for  instance,  many  a 
.gifted  pupil  may  make  no  progress  at  all  in  mastering  a  lan- 
guage, or  in  studying  grammar,  the  cause  of  it  being  that  bare 
words  have  nO'  meaning  to  him,  and  he  takes  no  pains  whatever 
to  understand  the  sense  of  so  many  difficult,  complex  rules.  At 
any  rate,  he  has  a  hard  nut  to  crack,  and  the  disgust  prevents 
him  from  diligent  application  and  study.  The  senseless  grind- 
ing goes  against  him,  and  we  thus  see  that  many  a  stupid 
grinder  gets  better  marks  in  Latin  and  Greek  than  a  pupil  of 
much  higher  mental  ability. 

To  learn  intelligently  and  thus  strengthen  the  associative 
memory  is  often  a  matter  of  impossibility  in  small  children. 
With  the  advanced  maturity  of  mind  this  improves.  A  child  is 
still  poor  in  perceptions ;  he  must  acquire  these  as  he  grows  up, 
and  the  results  will  be  correspondingly  better  according  to  his 
environment,  his  opportunities,  and,  in  the  first  place,  his  facul- 
ties. In  the  same  proportion  his  associative  memory  develops. 
According  to  the  experiments  of  Bourdain  on  a  number  of  pupils 

(331) 


332  Human  Intelligence. 


in  a  school  at  Paris,  memory  grows  slowly  between  the  age 
of  8  and  21;  from  14  to  20  years  it  is  supposed  to  remain 
stationary. 

According  to  Meumann's^  investigations  children  show  a 
uniform  progress  up  to  the  14th  year  of  age.  From  the  14th 
until  the  20th  they  make  very  great  progress  in  sensible  learn- 
ing. But  the  best  direct  memory  is  shown  between  the  ages  of  22 
and  24.  After  that  it  is  at  a  standstill.  In  regard  to  studying  in 
mature  age,  I  believe  that  here  very  much  depends  upon  the 
habitual  practice.  If  one  stops  studying  entirely  after  he  leaves 
high-school  or  the  university,  and  has  not  done  anything  in  that 
line  for  many  years,  it  would  be  ver}'  difficult  for  him,  if  after 
discontinuing  for  ten  or  fifteen  years,  he  had  to  learn  and  remem- 
ber something  by  heart  again.  In  some  occupations  a  continuous 
studying  is  already  assumed,  as,  for  instance,  in  that  of  a  min- 
ister, who  has  to  deliver  his  sermons  every  Sunday  by  heart,  or 
in  that  of  the  physician  who  has  to  study  continually  the  results 
of  new  investigations  and  new  methods  of  treatment.  Such 
men,  accustomed  to  much  study,  have  no  trouble  in  doing  so  in 
old  age.  Some,  or  even  many  of  these  men,  have  no  more 
difficulty  in  doing  this  than  they  had  in  their  younger  days. 
Ebbinghaus's  ability  to  learn  had  not  diminished  at  the  age  of 
52.  Even  at  a  very  advanced  age  some  highly  intelligent  men 
can  devote  themselves  very  diligently  to  studying,  Alexander 
von  Humboldt  still  did  so  at  the  age  of  80.  At  the  age  of  76 
he  published  the  first  and  second  volumes  of  his  "Kosmos,"  and 
after  the  age  of  80  the  third  and  fourth  volumes.  The  same 
could  be  observed  in  Senator,  who,  when  he  was  70  years  old, 
published  distinguished  treatises,  as,  for  instance,  one  on  "Poly- 
cythemia," and,  in  addition,  other  matter  wherein  new  methods 
of  treatment  were  recommended.  He  followed  very  closely  all 
progress  made,  and  studied  diligently  until  he  died.  AA'hen  I 
visited  my  deceased  friend,  Dr.  Pavy,  in  London, — he  was  then 
nearly  80  years  old, — I  always  found  him  engaged  in  diligent 


1  Meumann,  I.  c. 


Influence  of  Age.  Z2>Z 


study.  The  Countess  von  Melzi,  in  Mailand,  at  82  years  of 
age,  had  a  large  library  in  her  palace  in  Mailand,  and  I  have 
often  found  her  engaged  in  studying  some  very  difficult  philo- 
sophical books,  and  constantly  making  notes.  As  not  every  old 
man  has  hardening  of  the  arteries,  the  ability  to  learn  even  at 
a  very  advanced  age  can  be  perfectly  understood. 

Of  course,  a  child,  with  his  still  unwritten  memorandum 
slate,  is  best  fitted  for  taking  on  new  impressions.  According  to 
Radosawljewitsch^  children  retain  what  they  have  learned, 
mechanically  as  well  as  intelligently,  better  than  adults.  Only 
very  young  children,  below  the  age  of  5  years,  show  lower 
retaining  power.  According  to  the  investigations  of  the  two 
Belgian  investigators,  Decroly  and  Degand,  on  the  5-  and  10- 
year-old  children  of  the  Frobel  School  in  Brussels,  children 
retain  in  their  memory  best  such  things  as  they  know  from  their 
own  experience.  Children,  as  well  as  adults,  retain  better  such 
sentences  which  contain  some  concrete,  easily  understood  idea, 
and  they  can  recall  them  much  more  easily.  Short  sentences 
are  retained  better  than  single  words,  because  the  former  require 
less  attention. 

Disposition  of  children  plays  a  great  role  in  learning.  A 
child  is,  first  of  all,  dominated  by  its  disposition.  If  it  is  in 
good  spirits  it  learns  quickly;  if,  however,  it  is  not  well  dis- 
posed, if  the  weather  is  nice,  and  its  playmates  are  tempting, 
it  is  often  impossible  to  do  anything  with  it.  Particularly  are 
unbalanced  children,  according  to  A.  Fischer's^  investigations, 
susceptible  to  such  unsteadiness. 

Adults  also  show  very  little  ability  to  learn  when  they  are 
in  bad  humor.  We  have  tried  to  show  In  other  parts  of  this 
book  that  changes  in  the  disposition  are  in  close  connection  with 
the  state  of  blood-circulation  in  the  brain-cortex.    A  bad  humor 


2  p.  Radosawljewitsch,  Das  Behalten  iind  Vergessen  bei  Kindern  und 
Erwachsenen.    Leipzig,  1907. 

3  Arno  Fischer,  Dispositionsschwankungen  bei  normalen  und  schwach- 
sinnigen  Kindern.    Giitersloh,  1904. 


334  Human  Intelligence. 


must  be  associated  with  an  insufficient  blood-supply,  a  good 
humor  with  a  more  profuse  blood-supply.  The  same  relation 
must  be  existing  when  we  see  often  conspicuous  mental  accom- 
plishments manifested  in  some  exalted  conditions,  whereas  in 
depressed  melancholic  conditions  an  undesire  and  an  inability  to 
work  is  observed.  If  anyone — this  is  particularly  applicable  to 
children — therefore  is  in  bad  humor,  he  is  absent-minded,  and 
his  attention  must  constantly  be  incited.  If  attention  is  wanting 
he  cannot  note  anything,  and  is  unable  to  retain  what  he  has 
learned.  Aside  from  that,  what  has  been  learned  in  such  way  is 
not  worth  anything ;  the  incitement  and,  as  its  sequel,  the  strain- 
ing of  attention  which  very  soon  ceases  may  very  easily  produce 
a  condition  of  fatigue  which  we  must  by  all  means  prevent.  It 
must  be  here  also  taken  into  consideration  that  in  general,  as 
Radosawljewitsch  has  shown,  small  children  have  more  diffi- 
culty in  learning  than  adults.  Children  proceed  in  a  very  imprac- 
tical way  when  they  study,  as  shown  by  L.  Steffens's  experi- 
ments, and,  therefore,  children  should  be  taught  in  school  how 
to  learn.  According  to  Meumann,  children  learn  much  better 
in  school  and  are  less  absent-minded  than  when  they  learn  at 
home.  He  points  out  the  importance  of  formal  memory  exer- 
cises in  school.  It  would,  indeed,  be  of  .great  advantage  to  make 
children  do  the  most  part  of  studying  in  school  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  teacher,  so  that  the  child  would  have  sufficient  time 
at  home  for  recreation.  All  our  care  should  be  used  to  guard 
children  against  mental  overstrain  and  its  bad  consequences 
upon  the  welfare  of  the  body. 


CHAPTER    XLII. 

Rational  Method  of  Lecturing  and  Instructing. 

Just  as  the  main  object  of  studying  is  to  acquire  useful 
knowledge  and  retain  it  in  memory,  so  the  main  object  of 
instruction  is  to  so  impress  into  the  memory  of  the  hearers  the 
subject  being  studied  that  it  will  always  remain  there.  To  that 
end  it  is,  in  the  first  place,  necessary  to  create  in  the  audience  an 
interest  for  the  subject.  This  may  be  accomplished  (a)  by  the 
subject  of  the  lecture  itself;  (b)  by  the  manner  of  delivery.  In- 
teresting as  the  subject  of  the  lecture  may  be,  if  it  is  delivered  in 
a  monotonous,  unvaried  way,  it  will  neither  attract  attention  nor 
create  interest,  as  we  see  well  in  schools  and  public  meetings. 
First  of  all,  the  lecturer  himself  must  be  warmed  up  to  the  sub- 
ject; otherwise  he  will  not  succeed  in  warming  up  the  audience 
with  it.  Of  course,  often  a  speaker  undertakes — as  we  see  fre- 
quently in  political  meetings — to  grow  enthusiastic  for  his  sub- 
ject only  externally  without  having  the  fire  deep-seated.  This 
is  a  false  ardor,  which  an  attentive  and  intelligent  listener  would 
very  easily  detect;  consequently  his  interest  will  become  extin- 
guished, and  he  will  retain  nothing  of  the  lecture;  probably  not 
to  his  disadvantage!  If  one  preaches  water  from  the  pulpit,  and 
in  his  inner  heart  favors  more  the  wine,  his  lecture  would  lack 
the  inner  conviction,  without  which  he  would  never  be  able  to 
convince  others  of  the  truthfulness  of  what  he  speaks. 

The  essential  prerequisite  for  creating  in  the  audience  an 
enthusiasm  for  the  subject  is  that  the  lecturer  himself  should  be 
inspired  with  it,  and,  in  the  first  place,  that  it  should  have  been 
thoroughly  mastered.  If  this  is  lacking  the  lecture  will  lose  a 
great  deal  in  coherence,  clearness  and  form.  The  listener  can 
only  follow  the  lecture  quickly  when  from  the  start  a  leading 
thought  passes  through  it  like  a  red  thread,  indicating  that  the 
lecturer  has  grasped  his  subject  correctly,  and  can  unfold  it  in 

(335) 


336  Human  Intelligence. 


a  continuous  logical  connection.  It  woiUd  then  also  not  be 
necessary  to  read  off  the  lecture,  which  is — as  may  often  be  seen 
in  scientific  meetings — very  tiresome,  particularly  if  it  is  a  long 
one  and  read  in  a  monotonous  way,  and,  therefore,  cannot 
engage  the  attention  as  well  as  a  lecture  delivered  with 
enthusiasm. 

If  a  lecturer  masters  his  subject  perfectly,  he  is,  as  a  rule, 
able,  unless  it  is  concerned  with  technical  details,  to  deliver  it 
extempore  with  the  simplest  words  and  in  the  shortest  possible 
time.  And,  according  to  my  observations,  such  plain  and 
directly  delivered  lectures  have  the  most  intense  effect  upon 
the  audience.  They  are  quickly  understood,  well  noted,  and 
retained  very  well  by  the  memory.  Instead  of  listening  to  a 
read-off  lecture,  one  may  just  as  well  read  it  in  a  journal,  and 
may  often  retain  it  better.  Catholic  pulpit  speakers  have  often 
a  great  reputation  for  being  able  speakers  and  preachers,  which 
is  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  they  never  read  their  sermons, 
as  the  Protestant  ministers  in  England  sometimes  do. 

If  a  lecturer  possesses  the  above-named  qualifications  he 
might  be  able  to  present  in  a  very  interesting  manner  even  an 
otherwise  very  tedious  theme.  It  is  of  greatest  importance,  if 
he  is  to  succeed,  that  he  intertwine  into  such  a  subject  some- 
thing which  is  interesting,  even  if  it  has  only  some  indirect 
relation  to  it.  Some  lecturers,  distinguished  by  their  intelli- 
gence and  combination  ability,  have  the  faculty  of  presenting 
even  a  very  dry  subject  in  such  an  interesting  manner  that  the 
hearers  hang  on  their  words,  as  it  were.  I  have  often  admired 
it  in  Professor  L.,  in  Paris,  who  lectures  on  histology.  By 
introducing  some  interesting  topic  of  a  general  importance,  and 
by  a  perfectly  formed  beautiful  delivery,  he  is  able  to  present 
the  subject,  which  has  so  little  attraction  to  the  layman,  in  such 
an  inspiring  and  interesting  way  that  it  is  a  real  enjoyment  to 
listen  to  him.  The  genius  of  the  great  anatomist  Hyrtl  also 
manifested  itself  in  the  way  he  well  understood  of  making  the 
subject  of  anatomy  attractive  in  his  textbook   (which  passed 


Lecturing  and  Instructing.  337 

through  so  many  editions)  by  inserting  interesting  details  for 
comparison,  and  everywhere  pointing  out  the  practical  side  and 
emphasizing  this  in  particular.  In  just  this  way  a  capable 
teacher  is  most  likely  to  create  in  his  pupils  a  desire  to  work  and 
pleasure  in  study.  To  stimulate  this  is  the  best  key  to  success 
in  all  instruction.  I  consider  it  possible  to  stimulate  interest  in 
pupils  even  for  the  most  dry  subject,  if  it  is  shown  to  them  that 
it  leads  to  tangible  practical  results.  This  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  instructing  children,  because  children,  and  most 
particularly  not  very  gifted  children,  are,  in  general,  egotistic 
and  show  interest  for  something  only  when  they  are  able  to  see 
some  practical  gain.  A  child  can  be  won  generally  for  concrete 
and  practical  subjects,  whereas  theoretical  ones  leave  it  cold, 
and  this  often  holds  good  with  older  pupils,  with  high-school 
pupils,  and  with  university  students.  It  is  only  possible  to  get 
them  interested  in  a  subject  if  it  is  possible  to  give  practical 
demonstrations  of  it.  Pictures  can  be  best  retained  in  our 
memory  of  such  subjects  which  we  have  ourselves  seen,  touched, 
'felt,  heard,  smelled — which  we  have,  therefore,  perceived  with 
our  sense-organs.  Of  such  subjects  we  get  the  best  Impressions, 
and  can  preserve,  them  well.  If  anything  cannot  be  directly 
seen,  however,  and  can  be  presented  only  theoretically,  we  must 
make  a  picture  of  it  for  ourselves  and  preserve  it,  relying 
entirely  upon  the  lecture  of  the  teacher  and  the  aid  of  our  per- 
ceptive ability  according  to  our  faculties.  That  such  pictures 
must  often  turn  out  bad,  and  are  also  not  retained  well,  is 
obvious,  because  learning  from  such  instruction  does  not  amount 
to  much.  When  I  was  a  pupil  in  the  Piaristen  Gymnasium  in 
Nagy-Kanizsa,  in  Hungary,  I  could  best  follow  those  lessons  in 
chemistry  and  physics  which  v/ere  presented  in  the  laboratory 
of  the  school  with  the  aid  of  experiments.  Up  to  the  present 
day  I  remember  many  of  them,  but  the  number  of  stamens  in 
plants,  the  number  of  vertebrae  in  many  animals  I  had  forgotten 
the  next  day  after  I  recited  them  in  examination.  That  a  child 
instantly  forgets  such  dry  details,  and  similarly  also  the  dates 

22 


338  Human  Intelligence. 


of  historical  events  which  have  no  importance,  is  an  established 
fact,  and  hence  the  question  arises  whether  it  is  necessary 
to  torture  the  children  (high-school  boys  and  girls  included) 
with  them.  The  foremost  law  in  rational  instruction  must  be 
that  the  children  should  master  the  subject  to  be  learned  with 
greatest  ease ;  they  must  learn  economically,  and  thus  spare  their 
health;  and,  by  all  means,  avoid  mental  fatigue  and  overexer- 
tion. To  let  the  children  learn  something  by  great  effort,  or 
by  grinding,  knowing  that  it  will  be  very  soon  forgotten,  is 
senseless.  Therefore,  at  least  during  the  years  before  puberty, 
before  the  mind  is  mature,  in  all  teaching  particular  stress  should 
be  laid  upon  the  practical  side,  and  upon  everything  which  can 
stimulate  and  hold  the  child's  interest.  In  describing  plants, 
therefore,  their  practical  use  should  be  pointed  out,  rather  than 
the  number  of  stamens.  A  child  would,  for  instance,  very  easily 
remember  in  regard  to  saffron,  that  it  has  a  yellow  color,  and 
that  it  is  used  as  a  spice  and  if  added  to  rice  wovild  give  it  a 
yellow  color.  In  zoology  the  children  should  be  taught  the 
mode  of  living  and  the  habits  of  the  animals,  but  not  the  tire- 
some anatomical  details  which  they  will  anyhow  soon  forget. 
In  geography  it  should  not  be  attempted  to  plug  in  the  names 
of  the  mountain-peaks,  plateaus,  rivers,  and  their  courses  in 
China  and  Japan,  but  rather  describe  the  remarkable  customs 
of  the  people.  The  interest  in  regard  to  Morocco  would  be 
surely  increased  if  the  children  were  to  know  that  the  nicest 
dates  come  from  there  and  from  Tunis.  In  regard  to  cities, 
their  productions  and  industries,  their  eventful  history  should 
be  told ;  then  the  pupils  will,  by  association,  remember  also  the 
purely  geographical  details  better. 

In  teaching  the  history  of  the  world,  which  should  be 
described  with  particular  care,  considering  the  fact  that  it  is 
nothing  else  but  an  enormous  collection  of  practical  experience 
and  of  good  and  bad  examples  in  the  development  of  mankind, 
the  most  interesting  episodes  should  be  related,  because  these 
are  best  retained.     There  should  be  described  some  striking 


Lecturing  and  Instructing.  339 

event  from  the  private  life  of  particularly  great  historical  per- 
sonalities, such  as  incidents  from  the  life  of  Henry  IV,  and  par- 
ticularly from  the  life  of  great  discoverers  and  inventors,  to 
whom  mankind  owes  much  and  who  made  their  countries  great. 

Such  characteristics  are  retained  by  children  in  their 
memory  better  than  the  tiresome  dates  of  the  years  of  political 
and  commercial  conditions,  and  it  also  offers  the  best  oppor- 
tunity to  present  to  them  some  shining  examples  that  they  may 
be  stimulated  to  emulate.  In  this  sense,  I  consider  the  teaching 
of  the  world's  history  of  greatest  importance  for  the  future  of 
mankind,  and  for  the  education  of  citizens  devoted  to  their 
country. 

In  teaching  the  dead  languages  as  well  as  mathematics,  the 
congenital  predisposition  of  the  pupils  should  be  considered. 
Those  who  are  predisposed  to  both  of  these  would  form  excep- 
tions. According  to  my  observations  two  groups  of  pupils  may 
be  distinguished :  ( i )  those  who  have  a  predisposition  for 
mathematics,  and  at  the  same  time  are  often  deficient  in  the 
languages;  (2)  those  who  learn  languages  easily,  but  are  no 
good  for  mathematics.  And,  still,  mathematics  is  the  science 
which  helps  us  to  acquire  a  good  e3^e-measurement  and  develop 
logical  thinking.  This  is  the  reason  why  we  find  that  the  great 
philosophers  have  also  been  excellent  mathematicians,  as,  for 
example,  Leibnitz,  Kant,  Newton,  etc.  Ability  to  tell  propor- 
tional measurements  may  also  be  of  great  benefit  in  other 
branches,  such  as  music,  drawing,  painting.  With  a  predisposi- 
tion for  mathematics  there  generally  goes  hand-in-hand  a  con- 
genital faculty  for  chemistry,  physics,  and  the  natural  sciences. 
According  to  my  experience,  in  pupils  with  just  such  faculties 
can  be  easily  found  a  direct  aversion  toward  something  which 
they  do  not  understand.  They  can  only  impress  upon  their 
minds  things  which  they  can  perceive.  In  such  pupils  judgment 
is  better  developed  than  imagination,  and  those  who  show  pref- 
erence for  foreign  languages,  foreign  nations,  world's  history, 
literature,   and   reading  descriptions   of  voyages,   have   greater 


340  Human  Intelligence. 


imaginations.  If,  however,  imagination  and  good,  sound  judg- 
ment are  found  combined,  then  we  have  to  deal  with  ingenious 
children,  with  a  predisposition  for  great  talents,  for  genius. 
Unfortunately,  however,  this  predisposition  is  often  killed  in  its 
origin  by  our  school  methods,  which,  like  a  mill,  level  and 
equalize  all  our  faculties. 

It  is  possible  to  direct  imagination  as  well  as  judgment  into 
their  proper  channels  by  making  vivid  the  subjects  presented 
— if  possible  shown  life-like.  It  would,  therefore,  be  very  desir- 
able if  we  had  a  school  museum  in  every  town,  where  most  of 
the  animals,  plants,  and  minerals  could  be  exhibited  in  nature 
or  in  picture,  in  their  own  environment  in  their  life  habitat. 
Of  similar  value  are  presentation  of  events  from  the  world's 
history,  pictures  of  great  men,  inventors,  discoverers;  also  pic- 
tures of  foreign  lands  and  foreign  cities.  Whole  classes  could 
in  such  a  locality  assemble  several  times  a  week,  and  in  com- 
bination with  a  lecture  there  could  also  be  visits  to  picture  gal- 
leries and  art  museums,  in  order  to  gain  practical  knowledge  in 
the  world's  history.  Such  lectures  will  be  followed  by  the  pupils 
with  the  greatest  curiosity  and  interest,  and  will  probably  be 
retained  by  them  until  their  old  age.  The  main  purpose  of 
schools  in  general  is  to  prepare  for  life,  to  develop  natural  pre- 
dispositions, to  accumulate  knowledge  and  experience  acquired 
during  youth,  to  load  the  pupils'  brains  only  with  such  subjects 
which  may  directly  or  indirectly  be  of  use  to  them  in  their  future 
life;  but  not  with  useless  trash,  which  will  anyhow  be  soon  for- 
gotten, the  learning  of  which  is  not  only  tormenting,  but  also 
overstrains  and  tires  out  the  brain.  For  that  reason  common 
generalizations,  tabulated  knowledge,  classification  in  many  sub- 
divisions, etc.,  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible;  it  is, 
really,  as  the  Vienna  saying  goes,  "Only  for  the  cat,"  and  after 
having  been  ground  in  with  trouble  it  is  soon  forgotten. 

If  the  teacher  presents  some  very  dry  subject  he  can,  by 
interweaving  some  Interesting  examples  from  other  domains, 
again  revive  the  attention  of  the  pupils  who  probably  may  begin 


Lecturing  and  Instructing.  341 

to  fall  asleep  from  weariness.  Kant,  for  example,  was  in  the 
habit  of  relating  in  his  lectures  incidents  from  the  world's  his- 
tory and  from  natural  science,  thus  making  his  lectures  so  enter- 
taining that  his  hearers  followed  him  with  pleasure. 

It  is  of  advantage  for  the  purpose  and  success  of  teaching 
that  the  lecturer  be  able  to  exercise  an  influence  upon  his  hearers 
by  his  personality,  and  to  awaken  in  them  a  fancy  and  joyful- 
ness  for  studying  even  dry  subjects.  A  sympathetic  relation 
between  the  lecturer  and  his  audience  is  the  best  means  of 
creating  the  good  spirit  for  study  which  is  absolutely  needed 
for  mental  work.  The  lecturer  must  also  study  the  expressions 
of  the  audience  with  his  eyes,  and  notice  at  once  any  falling  off 
in  interest,  or  the  beginning  of  a  tired  feeling;  and  these  should 
be  signs  for  him  to  interject  interesting  examples  from  his  own 
experience  about  the  practical  application  of  the  subject  under 
presentation.  This,  of  course,  requires  that  the  lecturer  should 
be  well  read ;  and  it  would  be  laudable  if  all  learned  men  had  no 
"eye-flaps"  on,  as  it  were,  which  induce  them  to  anxiously  avoid 
everything  lying  beyond  the  limits  of  their  domain.  In  private 
intercourse,  as  well  as  in  teaching,  such  dryness,  with  every- 
thing hopelessly  gray,  never  awakens  any  sympathy;  and  it 
certainly  cannot  create  the  indispensable  class  interrelations 
between  the  teacher  and  his  pupils.  What  is  the  use  of  all  the 
great  scholarship  of  a  university  professor,  who  grew  up  in  a 
laboratory  in  seclusion  from  the  world,  if  he  is  not  able  to 
impart  something  of  his  extensive  knowledge  to  his  pupils,  and 
if  he  remain  to  them  an  unapproachable  idol  ? 

When  Kant  lectured  his  eyes  continuously  wandered  over 
the  audience.  He  was  fixing  now  one,  then  another,  and  took 
note  of  everything  in  the  behavior  and  expression  of  his 
hearers;  in  particular  he  studied  the  impression  which  his.  lec- 
ture produced  upon  his  pupils,  and  whether  or  not  they  under- 
stood him  well.  He  watched  his  hearers  so  sharply  that  he 
missed  nothing,  and  when  he  noticed  something  offensive  on 
their  clothing  or  discovered  a  missing  button,  it  was  one  of  his 


342  Human  Intelligence. 

peculiarities  and  weaknesses  to  get  so  mad  about  it  that  it  even 
disturbed  his  lecture. 

Such  a  vivid  interest  in  the  hearers  may  have  well  existed 
in  the  good  old  school  at  Konigsberg,  but  in  our  present  fully 
packed  university  lecture-rooms  it  is  no  more  possible.  It 
would  be,  in  the  interest  of  successful  teaching,  very  desirable 
that  the  members  in  the  class  of  onq  teacher  should  be  so 
limited  in  number  that  he  could  be  able  to  keep  an  eye  con- 
stantly on  each  individual  pupil,  and  notice  whether  or  not  he 
were  paying  strict  attention  to  the  subject. 

Instruction  by  practical  demonstration,  securing  at  the 
same  time  the  greatest  attentiveness,  could  be  best  accomplished 
by  the  use  of  the  kinematograph.  If  the  pupils  could  see  pass- 
ing by,  in  all  veracity,  strange  towns,  nations,  and  their  cos- 
tumes, foreign  animals  in  their  natural  habitats,  their  curiosity 
would  be  excited  to  the  highest  degree;  their  attention  would 
be  attracted,  and  whatever  was  learned  would  probably  be 
retained  forever. 

As  a  member  of  the  Flemish  Society  of  Naturalists  and 
Phyiscians  I  witnessed  in  Lowen  a  kinematographic  lecture  by 
Professor  Van  Gehuchten  about  spastic  paraplegic  spinal  paral- 
ysis with  such  interesting  pictures  that  I  can  easily  understand 
how  such  pictures  can  be  particularly  well  retained  in  the 
memory.  The  object  of  teaching  in  all  schools  would  undoubt- 
edly be  very  much  promoted  by  the  aid  of  kinematographic  lec- 
tures. If,  however,  the  schools  should  be  supplied  with  museums 
and  kinematographs,  and  the  teachers,  these  most  important  offi- 
cers of  the  State,  should  receive  a  salary  corresponding  with 
their  high  and  noble  calling,  it  would  cost  the  State  several  mil- 
lions, and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  they  would  be  frightened  by 
such  an  expense.  One  museum  for  all  institutions  of  a  town, 
of  a  not  very  great  size,  would  be  sufficient,  but  each  school 
should  have  its  own  kinematograph.  Even  if  the  sum  of  money 
required  should  be  ever  so  large,  it  seems  to  me  that  hardly 
any  other  expenditure  would  bring  to  the   State   so  rich   an 


Lecturing  and  Instructing.  343 

interest  as  this.  The  most  elementary  insight  must  tell  us 
that  no  other  sum  spent  is  so  good  an  investment,  as  the  one 
which  is  used  for  public  education.  Nothing  can  make  more 
secure  the  future  of  the  State,  down  to  the  remotest  times,  than 
the  rational  mental  education  of  the  growing-up  generations. 
The  future  of  a  State  need  not  depend  upon  the  great  size  of 
the  population,  nor  upon  its  wealth,  but  only,  and  above  all, 
upon  the  intelligence  of  its  people.  That  a  small  State  can  gain 
great  riches,  might,  and  distinction  through  the  high  intelli- 
gence of  its  citizens,  we  may  learn  from  the  history  of  Holland, 
England,  and  Prussia.  And  the  history  of  the  present  time  also 
teaches  us  in  plain  language  that  not  the  number  and  bravery 
of  the  soldiers  is  the  deciding  factor  in  warfare,  but  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  leaders  and  their  charges.  If,  therefore,  a  State 
desires  to  secure  for  itself  a  great,  powerful  position  among 
nations,  and  a  great  future,  it  must  use  all  its  means — even  if 
it  should  be  the  last  cent — to  elevate  the  intelligence  of  its  pop- 
ulation. Only  a  well  brought  up  child  may  become  an  intelli- 
'gent  citizen,  an  intelligent  soldier,  an  intelligent  general ! 


CHAPTER    XLIII. 

A  Few  Words  About  Rational  Writing  of  Text- 
books AND  Scientific  Treatises. 

What  has  been  said  about  verbal  delivery  is  also  appli- 
cable to  a  written  textbook.  It  is,  first  of  all,  necessary  that  it 
should  be  easily  understood,  and  written  in  a  bright,  attractive 
manner.  Only  in  this  way  can  the  interest  of  the  reader  be 
awakened,  his  attention  held,  the  matter  easily  absorbed  and 
remembered.  To  stimulate  the  attention  of  children  and  their 
desire  to  learn  I  consider  it  of  great  advantage  to  have  inserted 
in  the  textbooks  beautiful,  colored  illustrations,  such,  for  in- 
stance, as  are  to  be  found  in  Dr.  von  Haustein's  Zoology.  First 
of  all,  it  should  be  written  in  a  clear,  perspicuous  style,  because 
if  it  becomes  necessary  to  read  a  sentence  over  two  or  three 
times  in  order  to  get  the  meaning,  the  reader  becomes  disgusted, 
and,  as  I  have  mentioned  before,  mental  work  is  arrested.  From 
the  investigations  of  E.  Weber,  and  others,  it  is  evident  that  the 
feeling  of  disgust  affects  the  blood-circulation  in  the  brain-cor- 
tex. I  can  see  no  reason  why  scientific  books  cannot  be  written 
in  such  a  way  that  it  would  be  a  real  pleasure  to  read  them.  Too 
many  great  scholars  think  that  their  writings  can  have  more 
claim  to  be  scientific  if  they  are  written  in  a  heavy,  involved, 
overornate  style,  with  long  sentences,  and  selected  expressions  not 
easy  to  understand.  They  call  it  scientific  when  it  is  so  written 
that  only  a  small  circle  of  selected  students  can  understand  it. 
I  am  still  of  the  opinion  that  even  treatises  of  the  highest  scien- 
tific order  would  not  lose  in  value  if  written  in  a  more  popular 
style,  with  short  sentences  (not  eight  or  ten  lines  long),  employ- 
ing the  lightest  and  simplest  expressions  in  plain  and  unaffected 
language. 

German  scientific  works  are  read  very  much  by  people  not 
of  the  German  tongue,  and  the  greatest  difficulty  is  experienced 
(344) 


Writing  of  Textbooks.  345 

when,  as  is  usually  the  case  with  those  not  famiHar  with  the 
language,  they  first  have  to  search  painfully  for  the  noun  in  the 
middle  of  the  sentence,  and  then  search  again  a  long  time  for 
the  verb.  And  when  the  noun  and  the  verb  are  at  such  a  dis- 
tance from  each  other  as  Karlsruhe  is  from  Danzig,  it  is  no 
small  wonder  that  such  a  mental  work  is,  for  others  than  Ger- 
mans, very  tiresome. 

Mark  Twain  very  truthfully  describes  this  in  his  book, 
"A  Tramp  Abroad,"  which  is  filled  with  American  humor. 
Undoubtedly,  such  heavy,  difficult,  highly  scientific  style  may 
sometimes  drive  to  despair  even  a  German-born — or,  at  any  rate, 
tire  him  out  prematurely  if  he  has  to  read  each  sentence  three 
or  four  times  before  he  understands  it.  The  spoken  as  well  as 
the  written  presentation,  which  means  the  textbook,  should 
indeed  satisfy  the  main  requirement  of  instruction,  namely,  it 
should  be  understood  by  the  pupil  or  reader  without  any  fur- 
ther trouble  without  the  necessity  of  wasting  energy  and  time. 
By  all  means  avoid  tiring  and  mentally  overstraining  the  pupil 
and  reader  of  the  book..  It  is  to  be  particularly  regretted  that 
even  textbooks  for  the  instruction  of  children  too  often  tres- 
pass in  this  respect  Instead  of  being  written  in  a  compre- 
hensive, easily  understood  way,  and  in  as  short  a  form  as 
possible,  using  only  familiar  expressions,  I  found,  for  exam- 
ple, in  a  grammar  for  ii -year-old  girls,  in  the  first  grade  of  a 
gymnasium,  the  following:  "The  superlative  is  a  word  which 
signifies  that  a  characteristic  is  a  peculiarity  of  a  subject  in  the 
highest  degree."  It  is  obvious  from  this  how  necessary  it  is  to 
prevent,  by  every  available  means,  such  elaborations,  because  this 
leads  to  the  grinding  down  of  those  sentences  which  the  child 
has  difficulty  in  understanding.  In  cases  of  this  kind  I  con- 
sider grinding  (plugging)  as  given  to  man  by  nature  for  the 
defense  against  threatening  injuries  to  the  mind.  If  the  little 
girl  had  taken  pains  to  understand  the  sentence  mentioned,  and 
if,  besides  other  subjects,  she  had  to  learn  only  one  page  every 
day  of  such  nice  things  intelligently,  it  would  undoubtedly  result 


346  Human  Intelligence. 


in  a  tiring  out  of  the  mind  and  mental  overstrain.  Fortunately, 
children,  instinctively,  often  have  more  sense  than  adults,  and 
instead  of  working  hard  for  hours  trying  to  understand  such 
incomprehensible  things,  they  grind  them  down  with  less  pains 
and  with  less  loss  of  time.  In  writing  a  textbook,  as  well  as  any 
scientific  treatise,  the  guiding  principle  should  be  to  stimulate  a 
pleasant  disposition  to  learn,  by  using  an  attractive  style  and 
avoiding  unnecessary  dryness,  thereby  saving  the  reader  time  and 
trouble.  Here,  again,  is  shown  the  truth  of  the  expression :  ''Le 
style  c'est  Vhomme." 


CHAPTER    XLIV. 
The   Rational   Studying   of   Foreign   Languages. 

Everybody  speaks  best  and  most  thoroughly  his  mother 
tongue ;  in  this  language  the  most  difficult  expressions  and  rarest 
words  come  most  easily  to  the  mind.  This  language  is  also 
learned  with  the  greatest  ease  in  play,  as  it  were,  from  child- 
hood up.  It  is  fortunate  that  a  child  cannot  understand  gram- 
mar. If  a  small  child  had  to  begin  to  study  grammar  as  soon 
as  it  could  form  the  necessary  first  ideas,  as  it  is  done  entirely 
unphysiologically  and  in  a  stupid  way  with  growing  children 
and  adults,  it  would  surely  kill  any  linguistic  affection  right  in 
its  beginning. 

Considering  the  fact  that  a  child  acquires  a  foreign  lan- 
guage with  playing  ease,  it  would  be  well  if  in  learning  a  for- 
eign language  one  would  go  about  it  in  the  same  way  as  the 
child  does. 

As  soon  as  a  child  becomes  a  few  months  old,  in  his  brain- 
cortex  accumulate  pictures  of  various — entirely  new  to  him: — 
curious  objects.  A  ~child  is  inquisitive  by  nature — to  the  great 
fortune  of  mankind — and  it  wants  to  become  informed  about 
everything  it. sees  or  hears,  or  all  it  smells  or  touches.  Names 
for  these  various  things  with  which  the  child  comes  in  contact 
every  day  are  given  to  him ;  it  hears  how  these  objects  are  dis- 
tinctly designated,  or  it  itself  applies  names  to  them  which  very 
often  resemble  the  noise  which  the  objects  may  happen  to  pro- 
duce, or  the  sensation  which  they  may  cause;  they  become 
onomatopoietic,  as  it  is  said.  We  also  find  words  formed  in 
such  a  way  in  the  languages  of  uncivilized  nations  whose 
intelligence  is  in  a  state  similar  tO'  that  of  a  child.  So,  for 
instance,  the  spear  in  the  Maoris  has  the  name  "wiwirrl," 
reminding  one  of  the  noise  which  the  spear  produces  cutting 
through  the  air  when  it  is  thrown.     The  words  "strike"  and 

(347) 


348  Human  Intelligence. 


"clap"  are  designated  by  "pitata,"  and  a  strong  rain  is  desig- 
nated as  "pitapitata,"  whereby  surely  the  pattering  sound  of  the 
rain  is  imitated.  But  we  also  find  something  similar  in  the  mod- 
ern languages.  So,  for  instance,  in  German  the  words :  sausen, 
hauchen,  klingeln;  in  Hungarian  the  words:  csorgo,  zorgo 
(tschorgo,  sorgo  =  rattle),  bombol  =  it  drones  (the  cannon); 
in  Turkish  tschatlamak  ==  clap ;  biilbiil  =  nightingale ;  the  Italian 
word  bimbo  =  child;  fischiare  =  whistle ;  in  Dutch  babbelen 
=  talk.  Particularly  in  old  Egyptian  were  used  such  words  as 
"io"  for  mule;  ''krur"  for  frog. 

Closely  resembling  the  child's  way  of  thinking  is  the  origin 
of  the  word  "angor"  for  wine  in  Malayan.  Java  formerly 
belonged  to  Portugal,  and  when  the  Portuguese  entertained  at 
their  homes  travelling  Frenchmen  or  those  from  the  French 
colonies  in  India,  they  offered  them  wine,  and  in  filling  the 
glasses  again  would  generally  say  "encore"  as  an  encourage- 
ment to  drink.  This  was  taken  notice  of  by  the  Malayan  serv- 
ants, and  as  the  vine  does  not  grow  in  their  country,  and,  there- 
fore, no^  word  exists  for  it  in  their  language,  they  gave  the 
strange  drink  the  name  "angor."  A  child  would  surely  proceed 
in  the  same  .way,  and  as  our  daily  observation  teaches  us,  they 
actually  proceed  in  a  similar  manner. 

Moreover,  in  the  child,  which  in  its  actions  very  often  re- 
sembles a  small  monkey,  the  imitation  impulse  is  very  much  de- 
veloped. A  child  spontaneously,  by  instinct,  repeats  words  and 
names,  and  it  therefore  easily  notices  all  the  names  which  it  hears. 
Before  a  child  is  ever  able  to  pronounce  a  certain  word,  because 
his  organs  of  speech  are  still  undeveloped,  he  already  understands 
what  is  meant  by  it.  In  the  child  we  consequently  observe 
something  similar  to  what  we  see  when  adults  learn  a  language. 
He  understands  the  language  well,  but  cannot  speak  it;  for  it  is 
generally  easier  to  understand  something  than  to  find  the  proper 
words  and  pronounce  them. 

The  words  which  a  child  learns  are  all  names  of  objects 
which  surround  it;  it  learns,  therefore,  mainly  words  which 


Studying  of  Foreign  Languages.  349 

designate  concrete  objects.  The  stock  of  words  may  not  be 
great,  but  it  is  sufficient  for  its  needs. 

To  instruct  older  children  and  adults  in  a  language  very 
quickly,  it  would  be  well  to  follow  the  example  set  by  the  chil- 
dren. First,  we  must  acquire  a  stock  of  words.  There  are 
peasants  who  possess  a  stock  of  not  more  than  300  to  400 
words,  and  they  get  along  well  with  them.  A  foreign  language 
is  mostly  learned  for  the  purpose  of  making  one's  self  understood 
while  travelling  in  foreign  lands,  or  to  understand  foreigners 
who  live  among  us.  Philosophical  discussions  are  on  such  occa- 
sions required  just  as  little  as  are  abstract  perceptions.  It 
suffices  when  we  acquire;  in  our  stock  of  words  what  is  needed 
for  everyday  use,  and,  in  general,  300  to  400  words  would  be 
all  we  may  need.  In  studying  a  foreign  language  I  would  sug- 
gest that  the  first  lesson  consist  of  thirty  or  forty  words,  mainly 
nouns  with  their  prepositions.  In  the  second  lesson  just  as 
many  verbs  in  first  and  third  person  of  the  present  tense  sin- 
gular, and  probably  the  second  person  in  the  plural,  together 
with  their  proper  nouns.  In  the  third  lesson  the  adjectives,  not 
separated,  but  in  connection  with  various  words  of  the  same 
gender.  In  the  fourth  lesson  thirty  to  forty  adverbs ;  in  the  fifth 
lesson  numerals  up  to  100;  in  the  sixth  lesson  the  past  and 
future  of  thirty  verbs;  in  the  seventh  lesson  and  in  those  fol- 
lowing, sentences  should  be  formed  with  the  aid  of  the  words 
already  learned,  whereby  about  twenty-five  new  words  may  be 
learned  in  addition.  It  is  very  important  that  in  each  succeed- 
ing lesson  the  previous  one  should  be  recapitulated.  It  is  pos- 
sible thus  to  acquire  a  vocabulary  of  300  or  400  most  useful 
words  with  considerable  ease  in  ten  days. 

In  the  first  place,  words  that  are  not  needed  in  daily  life 
should  not  be  learned.  I  consider  it  wrong  when  I  find  in  the 
second  and  third  lessons  in  grammars  for  the  use  of  children  such 
words  as  "tree-trunk"  and  "kitchen-cabinet."  It  must  be  started 
always  with  what  is  needed,  and  only  when  this  is  acquired  may 
we  pass  on  to  what  is  less  needed,  and  then  to  words  which 


350  Human  Intelligence. 


designate  abstract  or  rare  conceptions.  As  a  means  to  promote 
the  memorizing  of  words  300  of  the  most  common  words  of  a 
foreign  language  could  be  put  together  by  using  letters  made 
from  colored  paper.  It  is  easy  to  get  a  colored  alphabet,  and 
this  should  be  used  for  assembling  the  words.  This  method 
is  best  used  in  instruction  in  the  classrooms,  and  these  words 
could  be  suspended  on  the  blackboard,  because  in  this  way  two 
sense-organs  are  affected  at  the  same  time,  and  thus  memory  is 
strengthened  by  association.  It  might  be  sufficient  if  only  fifty 
of  the  most  important  and,  at  the  same  time,  most  difficult  words 
are  prepared  of  such  colored  letters.  Memory  is  still  more 
helped  if  each  word  is  made  up  of  several  colors.  So,  for 
instance,  the  vocals  in  the  main  colors — red,  blue,  yellow,  green; 
the  consonants  in  their  shadings.  The  genders  could  also  be 
designated  by  putting  a  golden  rim  around  the  first  letter  of  a 
masculine  word  and  a  silver  rim  when  the  word  is  feminine, 
whereas  the  absence  of  a  rim  would  signify  neither  one  of  the 
two,  but  neuter.  I  know  from  my  own  experience  that  the 
colors  of  an  object  are  remembered  even  a  long  time  after  other 
details  have  disappeared  from  the  memory.  This  method,  which 
I  propose,  of  using  colors  in  studying  languages,  could  also  be 
used  for  other  studies;  for  instance,  for  learning  chronological 
numbers,  whereby  the  main  colors  could  be  used  for  the  even 
numbers  and  the  shaded  gradations  for  the  uneven  numbers. 

The  colors  would  probably  attract  greater  attention  to  the 
subject  from  the  children,  and  thereby  make  the  work  pleas- 
anter.  The  interest  would  also  be  more  awakened  by  learning 
useful  words,  and  not  the  monotonous  colorless  grammar,  and 
it  will  also,  according  to  the  law  mentioned,  strengthen  the 
memory.  I  think  it  is  the  studying  of  the  dry  grammar  in  the 
beginning  which  kills  the  pleasure  of  learning  foreign  languages. 
And  of  what  use  is  the  knowledge  of  the  most  beautiful  gram- 
matical rules,  if  one  does  not  possess  a  stock  of  words?  I  con- 
sider it  more  logical  to  acquire  the  words  first,  and  then  the 
proper  grammatical  form  in  which  to  put  them.     Of  course,  in 


Studying  of  Foreign  Languages.  351 

that  case  one  would  speak  a  faulty  language,  but  the  main  object 
is  that,  after  a  few  weeks  of  study,  one  should  be  in  a  position 
to  make  one's  self  understood  in  a  foreign  land ;  whereas,  the 
grammar  grinders  may  know  the  language  excellently  after  sev- 
eral years  of  study,  but  they  cannot  speak  it.  In  other  words, 
they  know  the  language,  but  cannot  master  it. 

In  the  way  suggested  I  have  learned  enough  in  four  weeks 
to  speak  Persian.  I  know  twenty  languages,  and  in  twelve  of 
them  I  have  already  delivered  lectures ;  only  two  languages  have 
I  learned  by  studying  grammar  from  the  beginning,  and  these 
are  Latin  and  Greek — and  just  these  two  I  cannot  speak. 
French  I  have  also  learned  grammatically  in  school,  but  after  a 
year's  study  I  was  not  able  to  speak  even  what  w^as  absolutely 
necessary.  Later  on  I  learned  privately  500  words,  used  every 
opportunity  to  speak  French,  even  though  it  was  ever  so  bad, 
and  in  two  months  I  knew  more  than  previously  after  a  year's 
study.  My  procedure  in  learning  foreign  languages  was  always 
to  acquire  a  stock  of  words,  then  study  grammar,  and  then  read 
much.  In  reading,  however,  I  did  not  look  up  each  individual 
word  in  the  dictionary — this  took  away  my  patience  and  pleasure 
when  I  was  a  child,  and  then,  like  other  boys,  I  was  done  with 
study — but  when  I  approximately  understood  the  meaning  of 
the  sentence,  I  analyzed  the  word  myself;  constructed  its  mean- 
ing from  the  connection  with  the  other  words,  and,  as  a  rule, 
I  succeeded  without  difficulties  in  understanding  the  whole 
thing. 

In  teaching  a  child  a  foreign  language  it  is  necessary  to 
create  in  him  a  desire  for  it,  to  excite  his  curiosity,  to  show  him 
the  benefit  of  it.  If  in  teaching  a  child  one  begins  with  gram- 
mar instead  of  winding  up  with  it,  the  studying  is  done  for. 
The  German  child  does  not  learn  his  German  from  the  grammar, 
but  learns  the  latter  only  when  he  is  already  able  to  talk.  Why, 
then,  should  we  act  so  illogically — in  studying  foreign  lan- 
guages— by  having  the  child  learn  first  the  dead  form  and  the 
living  context  later? 


552  Human  intelligence. 


When  we  have  accumulated  a  stock  of  words,  then  it  is 
very  useful  to  compile  a  few  of  the  most  used  sentences  in  con- 
versation, about  the  weather,  meals,  etc.  These  will,  of  course, 
turn  out  faulty  without  the  knowledge  of  grammar,  but  the 
main  thing,  however,  is  to  be  able  to  make  one's  self  understood, 
and  it  gives  great  pleasure,  particularly  to  children,  when  they 
are  able  to  say  the  first  time,  "Good  morning"  in  French,  or  are 
able  to  ask  for  anything  in  a  foreign  language.  In  this  way 
children  get  a  desire  to  learn,  and  this  is  indeed  the  main  point 
when  you  want  to  attain  something.  When  the  desire  to  learn 
languages  is  awakened  in  children,  and  they  already  know  by 
heart  a  sufficient  number  of  words,  we  can  begin  teaching  gram- 
mar. The  style  of  language  in  which  the  grammatical  rules  are 
written  or  presented  must  be  very  plain  and  not  so  difficult  to 
understand  as  most  of  the  textbooks  are,  as  the  example  given 
in  Chapter  XLIII,  shows.  Attention,  and  in  consequence  of  it, 
ability  to  take  notice  may  be  increased  in  children  and  in  adults 
by  presenting  examples  in  which  the  usefulness  of  a  given  rule 
for  daily  use  is  demonstrated.  Only  four  or  five  examples 
should  precede  every  given  rule,  and  not  follow  it,  as  is  the  case 
in  all  our  textbooks.  First  examples  should  be  given,  and  then 
the  rule.  In  most  instances  four  or  five  such  examples  contain- 
ing words  useful  for  every  day  should  be  written  on  the  board, 
and  the  rule  should  be  deducted  from  them.  According  to  my 
conception,  the  word  "rule"  means  the  establishment  of  some- 
thing characteristic  and  distinguishing,  which  is  common  to  the 
various  examples  and  a  generalization  of  it  for  all  cases  in  which 
it  would  serve  as  a  guide. 

I  consider  it  directly  unphysiological  when,  in  the  gram- 
mars, first  the  rules  are  given,  then  the  examples.  The  children 
become  weary  during  the  presentation  of  the  dry  rules,  and  the 
same  is  often  the  case  with  adults  as  well,  and  if  the  rule  is  not 
correctly  understood,  where  is  the  benefit  of  the  beautiful  exam- 
ples? It  is  an  overstraining  of  the  child's  brain  which  should, 
by  all  means,  be  avoided !    Besides  the  grammar,  the  child  has 


Studying  of  Foreign  Languages.  353 

to  study  other  subjects,  and  from  all  the  other  subjects  which  it 
studies,  the  learning  of  the  dry  rules  presents  to  the  child's  brain 
the  most  and  greatest  difficulties,  unless  it  grinds  them  like  a 
parrot  without  understanding  them. 

To  hold  the  attention  of  the  children  it  would  be  appro- 
priate to  have  the  examples  put  on  the  screen  of  a  projection 
apparatus,  and  the  words  designated  in  the  rule  under  consider- 
ation should  be  given  in  colors.  When  conjugations  are  pre- 
sented, the  present,  past  and  future  could  be  presented  in  main 
colors  and  the  others  in  the  various  shadings.  A  phonograph 
giving  the  right  pronunciation,  correct  intonation,  and  accen- 
tuation, could  also  be  used  with  great  advantage.  The  correct 
pronunciation  is  the  most  important  thing  in  learning  a  foreign 
language.  One  may  have  studied  a  language  for  many  years, 
and  may  master  it  in  word  and  script ;  may  speak  it  grammatic- 
ally, but  what  good  does  all  this  do  him  if,  due  to  a  faulty  pro- 
nunciation, nobody  understands  him  ?  And  it  is  remarkable  also 
that  a  false  intonation  or  a  false  accentuation  of  a  word  is  suffi- 
cient to  make  it  misunderstandable,  even  though  it  be  applied 
ever  so  correctly.  An  English  lady,  who  once  sat  next  me  at  a 
table  d'hote  in  a  place  near  the  French-Spanish  border,  after 
each  course  always  asked  the  waiter  for  "mercy"  by  wrong  pro- 
nunciation of  the  word  ("mercy"  instead  of  "mercie").  A  phono- 
gram must  naturally  be  taken  from  some  one  who  has  a  perfect 
pronunciation,  preferably  from  one  born  in  the  respective  coun- 
try. The  phonograph  has  also  the  great  advantage  that  it  can 
be  used  for  self-instruction.  Of  course,  the  instruction  in  a  liv- 
ing language  by  a  native  is  of  still  greater  advantage.  Due, 
however,  to  the  fact  that  this  is  not  always  possible,  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  that  the  State  should,  at  its  own  expense,  send 
young  teachers  abroad  that  they  may  learn  the  correct  pronun- 
ciation. It  is  not  right  that  some  one  who  does  not  have  a  per- 
fect pronunciation  should  instruct  others  in  a  language  which  can 
only  be  understood  when  the  pronunciation  is  correct.  Even  if  the 
expense  to  the  State  should  be  too  great,  it  must  be  taken  into 

23 


354  Human  Intelligence. 


consideration  that  a  knowledge  of  languages  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  for  the  development  of  the  intelligence  of  its  citizens. 
Only  thus  prepared  are  they  in  a  position  to  travel  in  foreign 
lands,  to  proficiently  enrich  their  knowledge,  to  establish  com- 
mercial connections,  to  export  products  of  the  country,  and  thus 
to  increase  the  wealth  of  their  State.  The  mental  production 
imported  from  foreign  countries  fertilizes  our  own,  and  produces 
much  better  effect  in  the  original  than  in  translations.  The 
knowledge  of  foreign  languages  facilitates  also  the  acquisition 
of  the  researches,  discoveries,  and  inventions  of  distinguished 
men  of  foreign  countries  for  the  benefit  of  our  own.  How 
happy  do  I  feel  that  I  can  read  the  publications  of  foreign 
investigators  in  the  original  languages!  For  research  in  the 
domain  of  natural  science  and  medicine,  the  knowledge  of  at 
least  French  and  English  seems  to  me  indispensable.  But  how 
many  important  publications  appear  also  in  Hungarian,  Dutch 
and  Scandinavian,  in  Italian,  and  even  in  Spanish,  which  it 
would  be  worth  while  to  read  in  extenso!  But  in  literature,  also, 
it  is  fascinating  to  read  in  the  original  the  works  of  Thackeray, 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  Victor  Hugo,  Cervantes,  Camoens,  Esaias 
Tegner,  Ibsen,  etc.  In  the  translation  the  fresh  dew  is  removed 
and  the  aroma  of  the  precious  fruit  is  lost. 

The  knowledge  of  foreign  languages  is  a  first-class  means 
of  developing  the  intelligence.  We  have  already  designated 
travelling  as  a  practical  exercise  for  the  sensory  organs,  whereby 
many  new  and  various  things  are  perceived,  and  our  senses  are 
sharpened.  Such  direct  perceptions  in  foreign  countries  can  be 
made  possible  only  with  the  knowledge  of  the  language  of  the 
respective  country.  Foreign  languages  serve  us  also  in  widen- 
ing our  mental  horizon,  and  particularly  enable  us  to  grasp  new 
ideas.  The  knowledge  of  foreign  mental  productions  stimulates 
particularly  our  own  productive  power,  a  fact  which  we  can 
observe  every  day  in  the  domain  of  inventions  and  discoveries. 
How  right  was  Karl  the  Great  when  he  said:  "Quot  linguas 
calleo,  tot  homines  valeo." 


Studying  of  Foreign  Languages.  355 

It  must  be  considered  as  the  sacred  duty  of  the  Board  of 
Education  of  every  State  to  promote,  by  all  means,  knowledge 
of  foreign  languages,  and  to  shun  no  expense  to  accomplish  it. 
Every  cent  spent  to  instruct  teachers  practically  in  foreign  lan- 
guages abroad  would  repay  a  million  times  by  its  benefit  to  the 
public  wealth. 


CHAPTER    XLV. 

Hints  About   Composition   of   the   Food   in 
Strenuous   Mental  Work. 

Anyone  who  works  must  nourish  himself  well,  and  this 
should  correspond  with  the  quantity  of  work  done  and  with  the 
amount  of  strain  used.  Similarly  to  any  other  kind  of  a  machine, 
the  human  body  can  perform  work  only  when  fuel  is  supplied, 
or  when  it  receives  nourishment.  By  feeding  we  produce  heat 
in  the  body,  and  this,  being  the  main  source  of  energy,  may  be 
transformed  into  labor,  either  bodily  or  mental.  Also  during 
mental  work  a  consumption  of  material,  a  consumption  of  tissue 
takes  place,  and  that  has  to  be  replaced. 

During  strenuous  activity  of  the  central  nervous  system 
more  phosphorus  and  lecithin  are  consumed,  and  both  can  be 
replaced  only  by  nourishment.  The  blood-supply  to  the  brain 
is  increased,  as  is  required  by  the  thinking  process,  and,  as  has 
already  been  mentioned,  a  sufficient  blood-supply  to  the  brain 
can  only  be  produced  by  a  generally  sufficient  supply  of  albumin 
and  by  sufficient  nourishment.  It,  therefore,  becomes  necessary 
that  men  doing  strenuous  mental  work  should  eat  well  and  sub- 
stantially. This,  however,  does  by  no  means  lead  to  the  con- 
clusion that  a  too  abundant  nourishment  is  good  for  them.  An 
overloading  of  the  digestive  organs  is  even  very  disturbing  for 
mental  work,  particularly  when  the  food  is  difficult  to  digest.  In 
that  case  an  overactivity  of  the  digestive  organs  takes  place, 
causing  an  increased  fullness  of  blood  in  these  organs,  and  this 
quantity  of  blood  is  taken  away  from  other  parts  of  the  body, 
and,  therefore,  the  supply  of  blood  to  the  cortex  is  lessened. 
This  manifests  itself  ultimately  by  a  heavy  feeling,  a  lack  of 
desire  to  work,  and  sleepiness  after  a  rich  meal,  when,  in  addi- 
tion, the  food  taken  in  is  difficult  to  digest.  Mental  workers 
should  eat  only  easily  digested  food,  otherwise  they  lose  several 
(356) 


Food  in  Mental  Work.  357 

hours  a  day  for  work.  It  must  also  be  taken  into  consideration 
that  strenuous  mental  workers,  as  a  rule,  take  very  little  physical 
exercise,  and  this  also  makes  a  perfect  digestion  unlikely.  The 
prime  principle  must  be  for  such  men  to  partake  of  very  little 
food  which  contains  too  much  connective  tissue  and  cellulose. 
White  meat,  such  as  young  chicken,  veal,  and  lamb,  would  be 
better;  but  the  most  easily  digested  albuminous  food  is,  how- 
ever, a  soft-boiled  tgg.  Ham  is  also  easy  to  digest,  but  only  if 
prepared  in  Prager  style. 

A  very  digestible  food,  hardly  felt  in  the  stomach,  is  fish, 
with  the  exception  of  eel  and  salmon.  Some  varieties  of  fish 
are  of  great  advantage,  in  that  they  supply  much  phosphorus. 
We,  for  reasons  already  stated,  must  partake  daily  of  at  least 
50  grams  of  albumin.  Food  for  mental  workers  must  also  be 
rich  in  carbohydrates.  These  can  be  supplied  very  readily  in 
the  form  of  macaroni,  farina,  and  rice;  also  tapioca,  sago,  etc. 
This  albuminous  and  carbohydrate  food,  containing  very  little 
waste,  has,  however,  a  disadvantage  in  that  it  leads  to  con- 
stipation, and  this  we  must  avoid  by  all  means,  because  it 
induces  fermentation  of  toxic  substances  (Plonnies),^  which, 
as  before  mentioned,  injures  our  intellectual  faculties,  partic- 
ularly the  memory.  We  must,  therefore,  add  waste-containing 
foodstuffs,  because  the  waste  acts  as  a  stimulant  for  the  evac- 
uation of  the  bowels.  It  can  be  best  accomplished  by  using 
bread  prepared  from  the  whole  rye,^  particularly  as  in  the  old 
country  mills;  such  bread  having  also  the  great  advantage  that 
it  contains  important  minerals,  such  as  calcium,  phosphorus,  iron 
in  much  larger  quantities  than  white  bread,  which  is  very  poor 
in  such  substances.  Very  important  nutritive  salts  are  also  sup- 
plied through  vegetables,  but  those  containing  cellulose  in  large 
quantities  must  be  eliminated.  These  can  be  taken  in  the  form 
of  puree. 


1  W.  Plonnies,  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  fitr  Nervenkrankheiten,  Bd.  xxxv, 
Seite  74.  / 

2  Lorand,  Rational  Diet,  etc.,   Chapter  iv :    Concennng  Bread,  and  the 
Advantages  of  Brown  Bread  over  White  Bread. 


358  Human  Intelligence. 


Fruits  also  constitute  a  food  rich  in  nutritive  salts,  and 
some  of  them,  like  May  cherries,  grapes,  etc.,  are  easy  to  digest. 
Some  fruits,  such  as  nuts  and  almonds,  are  very  rich  in  albumin 
and  fat,  but  mainly  in  phosphorus  and  calcium.  They  contain 
inositphosphoric  acid,  which  plays  a  similar  role  in  plants  as 
lecithin  does  in  the  animal  body,  but  they  have,  however,  the 
disadvantage  of  being  difficult  to  digest,  and,  therefore,  the 
important  mineral  substances  cannot  be  well  assimilated  from 
them.  The  latter  disadvantage  can  be  remedied,  however,  by 
fine  grinding.  Butter  is  a  food  which  contains  lecithin  and 
easily  digestible  fats.  Of  all  fats  this  is  the  most  desirable  for 
the  stomach  and  the  intestines;  beef  fat  and  mutton  fat  remain 
very  long  in  the  stomach  undigested,  and,  therefore,  mental 
workers  should  avoid  dishes  prepared  with  these.  Particularly 
so  if  one  is  inclined  to  insomnia,  because  such  food,  when  taken 
in  the  evening,  lies  in  the  stomach  until  early  morning  hours, 
and  may  disturb  sleep  the  same  as  do  foodstuffs  which  puff  up. 
Vegetables  rich  in  cellulose,  particularly  pod-fruits,  must  there- 
fore not  be  eaten  in  the  evening  by  nervous  individuals  suffer- 
ing from  insomnia.  They  may  be  directly  injurious  to  those 
suffering  from  arteriosclerosis  by  causing  gas  accumulations. 
Otherwise  pod-fruits  constitute  a  very  profitable  nourishment, 
because  they  contain  very  much  phosphorus,  calcium,  albumin, 
and  carbohydrates.  They  are  best  taken  in  a  puree  form.  Some 
of  them,  such  as  the  soy  bean,  in  the  hygienic  form  of  flour, 
may  be  made  into  biscuits.  Eggs,  milk,  and  cheese  can  be 
recommended  as  food  richly  supplied  with  phosphorus  and 
lecithin.  Cheese,  when  scraped  fine,  in  form  of  powder,  is  also 
easy  to  digest.  Vegetable  food  that  is  rich  in  phosphorus  has 
the  disadvantage  that  the  phosphorus  is  not  well  assimilated, 
and  the  greatest  part  of  it  is  removed  from  the  body  through 
the  bowel.  On  the  other  hand,  the  phosphorus  incorporated  in 
animal  food  appears  in  the  urine,  which  indicates  that  it  has 
been  absorbed  and  utilized.  In  certain  animal  organs,  such  as 
the  liver,   sweetbread,  and  also  in  the  brain,  phosphorus  and 


Food  in  Mental  Work.  359 

calcium  are  contained  very  richly,  but  the  greatest  part  of  it  is 
very  difficult  to  digest,  and  is  badly  utilized.  Brains  are  best 
prepared  in  the  form  of  puree.  If  a  tendency  to  uric  acid  for- 
mation exists,  these  dishes  should  be  prohibited. 

In  regard  to  the  times  set  for  meals,  the  main  principle  to 
be  followed  should  be  that  work  should  be  done  neither  on  an 
empty  stomach  nor  on  a  full  one.  Our  meager  breakfasts  and 
working  thereafter  until  noon,  in  Berlin  even  until  2  o'clock,  is 
highly  unhygienic.  Equally  bad  is  the  large  dinner  at  12  or  i 
o'clock,  as  is  customary  in  Austria  and  in  Germany,  because, 
due  to  the  full  stomach,  mental  work  is  then  hindered  for  sev- 
eral hours  in  succession;  and  it  may  also  be  observed  that  chil- 
dren in  schools  are  sleepy  during  the  first  hours  after  meals. 
One  should  take  a  more  copious  breakfast,  take  lunch  at  noon, 
as  is  done  in  England  and  America,  and  then  dine  in  the  even- 
ing. I  would  propose  for  mental  workers  the  following  menu 
as  appropriate: — 

Breakfast:  milk  or  coffee  with  milk,  2  eggs,  oatmeal  (well 
cooked)  with  cream  and  sugar,  butter,  fruit  (cherries,  oranges). 

Lunch  at  noon:  fish,  potatoes  or  macaroni,  rice,  fruit  cake 
(light  pudding). 

Evening  dinner:  soup,  roast  of  white  meat,  potatoes,  mac- 
aroni, rice,  or  green  vegetables,  dessert — pudding,  fruit. 

The  quantity  and  composition  of  the  food  must  vary 
according  to  the  character  of  the  mental  work.  For  those  with 
creative  mental  activity,  where  much  imagination  is  required  to 
create  new  ideas,  inventions,  discoveries,  I  consider,  for  reasons 
given  in  my  previous  treatise,^  phosphorus  and  meat  foods  most 
appropriate.  There  is  hardly  any  doubt  that  the  meat- 
eating  English  and  Americans  belong  to  the  most  intelligent 
people  in  the  world,  and  that  most  inventors  and  discoverers 
may  be  found  among  them.  At  any  rate,  I  would  consider  a 
diet  which  is  poor  in  albumin  and  phosphorus  as  not  an  appro- 


■i  Lorand,  Rational  Diet,  etc.,  Chapter  i :   On  the  Influence  of  Food  upon 
the  Nervous  System  and  upon  the  Attributes  of  Mind. 


360  Human  Intelligence. 


priate  one  for  creative  mental  activity,  because  in  that  case  the 
blood-supply  in  general,  and  thus  the  supply  of  blood  in  the 
brain,  is  affected.  With  strictly  vegetable  diet  it  is  never  pos- 
sible to  supply  the  blood  with  such  quantities  of  albumin^  phos- 
phorus, calcium,  and  iron  as  with  mixed  diet.  A  strictly  vege- 
tarian diet  is  more  or  less  an  underfeeding.  On  the  other  hand, 
daily  experience  teaches  us  how  excellently  a  rather  more  copi- 
ous feeding  acts  in  a  weakened  condition  of  the  nerves.  Of 
course,  for  profitable  mental  work  it  should  not  be  too  copious. 
Whereas,  a  luxurious  diet,  by  increasing  the  blood-supply  to  the 
brain,  acts  more  beneficially  upon  imagination.  The  scanty, 
ascetic  diet  of  a  Diogenes  acts,  on  the  other  hand,  more  favor- 
ably upon  the  gifts  of  criticism.  In  the  case  of  studying  and 
learning  the  wisdom  of  others,  or  of  cold,  temperate  judg- 
ment, or  of  thinking  about  philosophical  problems,  or  of  more 
mechanical  mental  work  where  nothing  productive  is  required, 
it  is  possible  to  get  along  with  vegetarian  diet,  but  only  with 
the  addition  of  milk  and  cheese.  Applying  this  to  the  domain 
of  music,  I  would  consider  the  first  kind  of  diet  more  appro- 
priate for  composers,  and  the  vegetarian  diet  better  for  the  plain 
musicians  of  an  orchestra  who  only  play  melodies  composed  by 
others. 


CHAPTER   XLVI. 
Rational   Food  for   Musicians.^ 

In  practising  music  two  kinds  of  work  are  executed:  (a) 
physical;  (b)  mental.  The  physical  work  is,  with  some  instru- 
ments, not  at  all  easy — for  instance,  in  playing  the  piano ;  play- 
ing the  violin  also  requires  considerable  muscular  strain,  and  even 
singing  demands  a  good  deal  of  work  by  the  muscles  of  the 
chest,  and  somewhat  also  of  the  abdominal  muscles.  Consider- 
ing the  fact  that  muscular  activity,  as  is  well  known,  is  done  at 
the  expense  of  the  sugar  stored  up  in  the  muscles — the  glyco- 
gen, and  that  this  is  derived  from  the  sugar  taken  into  the  body 
with  the  food  in  form  of  the  carbohydrates,  rice,  potatoes,  cakes, 
etc.,  it  is  obvious  that  a  greater  or  lesser  amount  of  these  food 
materials  must  be  introduced  into  the  body,  depending  on  the 
amount  of  work  to  be  done.  The  nourishment  of  a  person  play- 
ing extensively  the  piano  or  violin  must  contain  a  great  quantity 
of  rice,  potatoes,  and  cakes ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  must  also 
contain  a  sufiftcient  quantity  of  albumin,  because  the  movements 
of  the  muscles  increase  their  blood-supply,  and  thereby  tissue, 
consisting  mainly  "of  albumin,  is  deposited,  and  such  muscle 
becomes  larger  and  stronger.  We  thus  see  ardent  piano-players, 
even  delicate  girls,  who  sometimes  have  such  strong  arms  and 
hands,  which  are  entirely  out  of  proportion  with  the  other  mus- 
cles and  extremities  of  their  delicate  body.  Such  persons  must, 
therefore,  introduce  into  their  bodies  albumin  (meat)  in  sufficient 
or  even  greater  quantity.  The  most  important  component  parts 
of  the  blood,  the  blood-corpuscles,  indeed,  consist  of  albumin,  and 
when  the  quantity  of  the  latter  is  not  sufficient,  blood-corpuscles 
cannot  be  formed.  These  blood-corpuscles  protect  us  against 
infectious  diseases  by  the  fact  that  the  white  blood-corpuscles 
destroy  the  bacteria  entering  into  our  bodies,  to  which  we  are 


1  Appeared  also  in  "Der  Musiksalon,"  published  by  Lubowsky  in  Berlin. 

(361) 


362  Human  Intelligence. 

exposed  throughout  all  our  life.  This  explains  how  a  growing 
young  girl,  who  plays  the  piano  very  much  and  eats  very  little 
meat  or  eggs,  could  very  easily  acquire  tuberculosis,  particularly 
so  if  she  is  predisposed  to  it  through  her  parents  or  grandparents. 
But  such  a  diet,  poor  in  meat,  in  eggs  or  in  milk,  has  still  another 
disadvantage,  and  that  is  that  it  introduces  into  the  body  too 
little  phosphorus.  A  phosphorus-containing  nourishment  is  par- 
ticularly important  for  the  strenuous  mental  work  of  the  com- 
posers with  creative  activity.  A  strictly  vegetarian  dief  can 
surely  not  be  recommended  for  such  individuals,  for  the  reason 
that  the  necessary  amount  of  albumin  and  phosphorus  cannot  be 
obtained  from  such  food.  Even  if  som.e  of  the  vegetable  food- 
stuffs, like  pod-fruits,  contain  very  much  albumin  and  phos- 
phorus, much  of  it  is  lost  through  the  bowel,  and  cannot  be 
utilized  by  the  body.  For  a  composer  it  would  be  rather  of 
advantage  to  have  a  morel  copious  diet  with  sufficient  meat,  fish, 
eggs,  milk,  cheese,  and  with  rice,  potatoes,  cakes,  etc.  If  the 
individual  is  more  advanced  in  age,  then  more  moderation  in 
eating  should  be  recommended  to  prevent  the  development  of 
arteriosclerosis,  which  is  particularly  liable  to  occur  in  strenuous 
mental  activity.  A  short  time  ago  I  met  a  lady,  who  was  a 
very  able  pianist  and  composer;  she  looked  like  a  man,  played 
like  a  man,  but  she  also  ate  like  a  man! 

A  strictly  vegetarian  diet  should,  then,  not  be  recommended 
for  women  piano-players,  particularly  in  the  period  of  growth, 
but  the  food  should,  nevertheless,  contain  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  green  vegetables  and  fruit,  because  this  prevents  constipation. 
The  latter  occurs  very  often  in  women,  and  in  young  girls,  due 
to  certain  peculiarities  of  their  bodies,  which  I  have  fully 
described  in  my  book  on  "Old  Age  Deferred."  The  bad  habit 
of  some  ladies  of  drinking  no  water,  or  very  little  of  it,  may 
easily  lead  to  constipation.  They  omit  it  for  fear  of  becoming 
too  fat,  but  surely  nobody  gets  fat  from  drinking  much  water. 
The  only  effect  is  that  the  food  is  utilized  more  easily,  but  a 
substantial  increase  of  the  body  weight  can  hardly  ever,  or  very 


Food  for  Musicians.  363 


seldom,  be  attributed  to  this  alone.  Abstaining  from  water  is 
anyhow  a  very  bad  habit,  because  it  may  also  prevent  the  elimi- 
nation from  the  body  of  various  poisonous  and  injurious  sub- 
stances, such  as  uric  acid.  Such  substances  are  thus  partly 
eliminated  through  the  skin,  and  such  persons  get  pimples  on 
the  face.  By  the  proper  selection  of  the  food  we  can  best  pre- 
serve and  improve  the  beauty  and  complexion,  as  I  have  shown 
in  the  above-mentioned  book,  and  at  the  same  time  still  be  able 
to  prevent  becoming  fat.  Individuals  acting  on  the  stage  seem 
exposed  to  this  danger,  particularly  many  women  singers  are 
inclined  to  it.  Often  the  most  beautiful  soprano  and  tenor 
voices  are  found  in  persons  inclined  to  obesity.  To  successfully 
combat"  this  sugar-containing  foodstuffs,  cakes,  rice,  and  potatoes 
must  be  restricted.  Mountain  climbing,  sweat-baths,  treatment 
with  laxative  mineral  waters,  hot  brine  baths  may  act  very  well 
and  explain  the  popularity  of  the  cures  in  Carlsbad,  Marienbad, 
and  Kissingen.  If  obesity,  however,  is  due  not  to  too  copious 
nourishment,  but  to  a  congenital  disposition,  then  a  careful 
treatment  with  thyroid  may  be  useful. 


VIII.    RATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT   OF   INTELLIGENCE 

IN  CHILDREN 


CHAPTER    XLVII. 

Hints  About  Mental  Education  of  Children — The 
Harm   of   Punishment. 

Rational  training  of  animals  can  only  be  accomplished 
with  kindness  and  much  patience.  The  animal  trainer  Bostock, 
who  died  a  few  years  ago,  used  to  say  that  for  a  successful  train- 
ing of  animals  two  things  are  required: — 

(a)  great  love  for  the  animals; 

(b)  unlimited  patience. 

That  much  more  can  be  accomplished  with  animals  by  kindness 
than  by  punishment  was  taught  by  the*  old  Hagenbeck.^  For- 
merly, animals  used  to  be  urged  to  learn  by  cruel  treatment,  by 
making  them  timid  with  the  firestick  and  hard  whips,  and  the 
result  was  that,  although  the  instructors  were  often  torn  to 
pieces,  the  animals  did  not  get  much  smarter.  Hagenbeck  has 
shown  that  with  a  piece  of  sugar  and  a  mild,  friendly  treatment 
even  wild  animals  may  be  made  tame  and  friendly. 

Now  there  is  a  correspondence  between  animals"  and  men, 
not  only  in  many  anatomical  and  physiological  features,  but  also 
in  regard  to  training,  taming  and  education.  This  we  see  very 
distinctly  in  the  treatment  of  the  mentally  diseased.  Not  much 
more  than  a  hundred  years  ago  the  insane  were  kept  in  chains, 
and  were  heavily  punished,  as  if  they  were  unmanageable  crim- 
inals and  not  unfortunate  patients.  The  result  was  that  their 
condition  grew  worse.  Today  such  patients  are  treated  with 
kindness.  If  one  visits  an  insane  asylum  today,  it  seems  as  if 
visiting  a  rest  retreat.     In  the  rooms  where  formerly,  due  to 


1  Karl  Hagenbeck,  Von  Tieren  und  Menschen.    Berlin,  1912. 
(364> 


Mental  Education  of  Children.  •  365 

cruel  treatment,  noise  and  roaring  dominated,  it  is  now  very- 
quiet,  and  as  a  result  of  humane  and  expert  treatment  strait- 
jackets  belong  to  the  things  of  the  past.  Chambers  with  blue 
light  and  protracted  baths  have  taken  the  place  of  the  latter,  and 
one  can  wander  through  the  wards  of  insane  asylums  without 
hearing  a  loud  cry.  What  a.  difference,  in  comparison  with  the 
barbaric  and  ignorant  treatment  practised  by  our  forefathers! 

If,  then,  a  kind  and  humane  method  in  the  training  of  wild 
animals  and  in  caring  for  and  treating  unmanageable  and 
maniacal  human  beings  has  rendered  such  excellent  results,  it 
may  be  assumed  a  priori,  that  tliis  method  of  old  Hagenbeck 
would  also  be  beneficial  when  applied  to  the  training  of  the 
human  young,  whose  mind  has  not  as  yet  reached  its  maturity. 
I  am  inclined  to  think  that,  as  a  rule,  the  promise  of  reward 
would  much  sooner  induce  a  child  to  diligent  work  than  the 
threatening  of  a  good  thrashing.  Frederick  Hebbel  was  the 
child  of  a  mason,  and  grew  up  in  the  country.  The  maid 
Susanne,  daughter  of  a  country  school-teacher,  who  took  pains 
in  educating  him,  had  very  peculiar  methods  of  instruction ;  she 
held  in  the  one  hand  a  ruler  and  in  the  other  one  a  bag  of  raisins. 
While  whipping  is  indeed  a  very  much  felt  argument,  it  is  not 
always  convincing,  but  it  may  create  in  the  heart  of  the  child  a 
number  of  negative,  bad,  and  dangerous  feelings,  such  as  bitter- 
ness, hatred,  revenge,  and  sadness,  which  have,  heretofore,  prob- 
ably been  entirely  unknown  to  him.  Worst  of  all,  however,  is 
the  fear  of  repeated  punishment,  as  there  becomes  implanted  in 
the  most  delicate  mind  of  the  child  the  most  disagreeable  and 
most  injurious  feelings  which  oppress  the  human  mind,  such  as 
fear,  anxiety,  grief  and  care,  and  these  do  not  leave  him  until 
he  dies.  An  education  for  future"  life  should  do  everything  to 
keep  off  feelings  that  destroy  human  mind  and  body  or  should 
kill  them  in  their  beginning.  Kindness  and  reasoning  would 
be  the  best  way  to  accomplish  this,  even  if  it  is  sometimes 
very  difficult.  Love  for  the  children  and  unlimited  patience 
with   them   are   the   surest   means   for   successful    educational 


2)66  Human  Intelligence. 


results.  Whoever  whips  his  child,  strikes  himself!  Children 
should  be  brought  up  in  such  a  way  that  a  word  of  censure 
would  be  felt  more  deeply  than  any  bodily  punishment.  If  we 
have  to  deal  with  children  who  are  bad  on  account  of  con- 
genital predisposition,  then  no  punishment  will  be  of  any  avail, 
and  all  that  can  be  done  is  to  treat  this  morbid  predisposition  in 
an  appropriate  way.  Just  such  mentally  backward  children  are 
very  revengeful,  and  it  is  pointed  out  by  Wagner  von  Jaueregg^ 
that  cretinous  children  never  forget  any  injustice  done  to  them. 
According  to  Binswanger,  punishment  of  the  feeble-minded  has 
only  the  bad  result  of  making  them  worse.  Just  as  little  as  it 
is  excusable  to  hit  an  insane  person,  so  is  it  unjustifiable  to  strike 
a  feeble-minded  person  as  a  punishment  for  his  shortcomings ; 
the  latter  should  be  administered  to  the  parents  who  treat  the 
sick  child  in  that  way. 

There  is,  consequently,  very  little  sense  in  compulsion.  By 
words  of  encouragement,  and  eventually  by  promise  of  reward, 
a  normal  child  may  be  made  to  learn  most  easily;  and  in  case 
the  child  is  abnormal  a  stick  will  not  help  much,  and  may  do 
harm.  It  is,  generally  speaking,  a  pity  that  life  carries  with  it 
that  compulsion  which  is  the  mother  of  ill-feelings,  embracing 
the  man  from  his  childhood  up  until  he  dies.  I  trust  that  the 
method  of  education  in  coming  centuries  will  make  use  of  love 
and  kindness,  and  that  compulsion,  threatening,  fear-creating, 
all  these  compulsory  measures,  which  breed  neurasthenia,  hys- 
teria, and  mental  derangements  even  during  childhood,  will  be 
forgotten.  That  neurasthenia  and  hysteria  may  be  induced  by 
anxiety  and  fright,  particularly  where  there  is  a  congenital  pre- 
disposition, I  have  already  mentioned.  Very  many  children  are, 
however,  still  more  frightened  and  punished  by  their  parents  at 
present  than  wild  animals  by  their  trainers.  We  constantly 
carry  on  our  lips  the  motto:  "Everything  for  the  child,"  but, 
unfortunately,  only  on  our  lips  and  not  in  the  heart. 


2  Wagner  v.  Jaueregg   in   Lewandowsky's   Handbuch   der   Psychiatric, 
Berlin,  1912,  Monographic  iiber  Kretinismus. 


Mental  Education  of  Children.  367 

Why  do  not  we  in  Austria-Hungary,  and  in  Germany  also, 
found  a  society  like  the  English  "National  Society  for  the  Pre- 
vention of  Cruelty  to  Children,"  which  has  its  agents  every- 
where? They  inspect  the  homes  of  the  poorer  population — the 
homes  of  the  rich  should  also  not  be  spared — and  bring  to  notice 
all  cases  in  which  children  are  ill  treated.  The  State  sees  to  it 
that  the  peasant  should  treat  his  horses  and  his  foal  well.  Why 
does  not  a  similar  commission  go  around  a  couple  of  times  dur- 
ing the  year  and  see  how  the  peasant  treats  his  children,  and  in 
what  condition  they  are?  It  is  true  that  in  some  States  school 
physicians  watch  over  the  physical  welfare  of  the  children,  but 
they  often  know  very  little  of  what  is  going  on  in  the  parents' 
homes,  behind  the  scenery.  Hungary  was,  probably,  the  first 
State  to  have  school  physicians  introduced,  about  twenty  years 
ago,  under  Secretary  Trefort.  Hungary  was  also,  by  the  way, 
one  of  the  first  States  which  clearly  declared  that  every  illegiti- 
mate child  has  a  right  to  be  brought  up  and  educated  by  the 
State.  The  education  of  such  children  in  the  pitiful  cottages  of 
their  foster  parents  living  in  misery,  often,  unfortunately,  leads 
to  physical  and  mental  debility.  What  a  favorable  opportunity 
presents  itself  here  for  the  State  to  interfere  and  bring  up  able 
men  who  will  serve  it,  instead  of  later  having  to  spend  millions 
for  the  support  of  these  individuals  in  hospitals,  insane  asylums 
and  prisons!  I  am  very  sorry  that  the  State  too  often  thinks 
of  correcting  the  past,  but  not  of  prevention  for  the  future.  It 
spends  a  million  of  our  tax  money  where,  with  some  foresight, 
it  could  get  along  with  one-one-hundredth  part  of  it.  And  all 
this  is  just  the  reason  why  the  present  generation  thinks  it  can- 
not get  along  in  education  without  compulsory  means.  But  it 
is  possible  to  obtain  the  best  results  in  education  and  instruction 
without  the  use  of  the  slightest  compulsion,  as  I  have  seen  in 
the  school  in  Mailand,  conducted  after  the  Montessori  method. 
The  best  of  all  methods  for  education  of  children  I  consider  to 
be  the  creation  of  a,  desire  to  work.  If  a  child  does  something 
with  pleasure,  it  learns  best  and  quickest.     This  is  accomplished 


368  Human  Intelligence. 


in  a  very  ingenious  way  by  the  method  of  Dr.  Maria  Montessori 
in  Rome,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken.  The  children  learn 
during  play  and  become  so  deeply  absorbed  with  the  learning — 
which  also  resembles  the  playing — that  they  neglect  the  playing 
proper.  The  children  only  want  to  learn  and  not  to  play, 
because  the  learning,  such  as  selecting  various  beautiful  colors, 
building  of  towers,  whereby  they  receive  practical  instruction 
in  measuring,  gives  them  more  fun  than  dull  play.  I  noticed 
there  that  a  beautiful  6-year-old  child,  with  curly  hair  and  dark- 
blue  eyes,  was  the  only  one  who  remained  inactive.  The  teacher 
let  her  alone,  as  she  did  not  want  to  use  any  compulsion.  Half 
an  hour  later,  however,  when  the  child  saw  that  everybody  else 
was  working,  the  imitative  instinct,  inborn  in  children,  got  hold 
of  her,  and  she  also  began  to  work.  Reading  and  writing  are 
also  taught  by  that  method.  The  children  are  given  the  figures 
of  letters  in  their  hand  and  are  told  that  this  is  the  letter  A  or 
B,  or  some  other  letter,  and  the  child  must  then  pick  out  a 
similar  letter  in  colors  and  put  it  on  top  of  the  first  one;  and 
the  child  is  generally  joyful  when  it  has  done  it  correctly.  By 
telling  it  then  to  search  for  C  or  D,  and  by  numberless  repeti- 
tions, it  is  reminded  of  the  name,  and  thus  remembers  the  let- 
ters well.  After  the  child  has  found  the  colored  letters  and  put 
them  on  those  corresponding  it  is  helped  to  draw  the  contours 
with  a  pencil.  Hereby  it  is  taught  to  hold  the  pencil  like  a  pen 
in  writing,  so  that  it  actually  writes  the  letters.  Next  it  is  given 
an  alphabet  of  sandpaper  in  the  hand  and,  blindfolded,  is  made 
to  feel  and  recognize  the  letters.  It  happens  very  often  that, 
after  a  short  time,  a  child  will  go  to  the  blackboard  and  write 
down  the  various  letters  entirely  freehand.  I  think  that  this 
is  the  quickest  method  of  teaching  the  children  to  read  and  to 
write. 

I  would  like  to  emphasize  particularly  that  the  children 
are  at  work  with  body  and  soul,  and  pay  their  full  attention  to 
it.  They  even  do  not  allow  themselves  to  be  distracted  by  the 
singing  and  playing  of  the  other  children,  and  often  neglect  to 


Mental  Education  of  Children.  369 

play  during  the  recess.  In  a  similar  way,  also,  are  numbers  and 
figuring  taught,  in  which  case,  to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
children,  entirely  new  coins  are  used  for  figuring.  The  greatest 
advantage  of  this  method  is  that  as  the  children  have  to  see 
everything  distinctly  they  have  to  touch  and  feel  it;  therefore 
their  power  of  observation  is  sharpened,  as  well  as  the  senses  in 
general,  without  which,  as  already  mentioned,  rational  think- 
ing is  impossible.  The  most  striking  feature  is  that  the  teachers 
do  not  exercise  the  slightest  compulsion.  No  sharp  reproving, 
or  threatening  words,  or  gestures  are  ever  used.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  children  are  rather  flattered  instead  of  whipped,  and 
everything  goes  well  with  kindness.  I  have  only  noticed  dili- 
gently working  children,  and  if  there  were  exceptions,  these  were 
mentally  backward  children.  It  is  thus  entirely  different  from 
what  is  otherwise  so  often  observed  in  regard  to  education,  even 
in  the  homes  of  the  parents.  Some  parents,  in  their  ignorance, 
whip  the  children  for  every  little  thing;  sometimes  even  when 
they  happen  to  be  themselves  in  a  bad  humor  and  the  children, 
in  their  inborn  curiosity,  put  a  curious  question  to  them  about 
the  different  things  which  may  have  excited  their  attention. 
Now  it  is  just  this -feature  which  the  parents  should  greet  with 
pleasure  as  the  first  sign  of  awakened  intelligence.  The  great 
philosopher  Locke  said  plainly:  "Encourage  inquisitiveness  in 
the  child  as  much  as  possible,  answer  his  questions  and  instruct 
him  how  to  form  his  own  opinion."^  By  all  means,  endeavor 
so  to  train  the  child  that  he  may  be  able  to  form  a  correct  opin- 
ion about  every  subject.  The  child  should  be  shown  all  kinds 
of  things  and  their  significance,  and  the  name  given.  Then 
should  be  taken  a  number  of  objects  which  are  very  similar,  but 
not  entirely  alike,  and  the  child  asked  to  point  out  the  differ- 
ence. I  consider  it  a  very  good  thing  to  let  them  describe  the 
individual  objects.  Hereby  the  child  could  be  taught  practically 
to  express  himself  correctly,  and,  above  all,  to  see  aright  and  gain 
experience.     I  would  then  recommend  the  placing  of  five  or  six 

3  Locke,  Some  Thoughts  on  Education.    London,  1692. 

24 


370  Human  Intelligence. 


objects  beside  one  another,  and  ask  the  child  to  designate  that 
feature  which  is  common  to  all  of  them.  What  all  have  in  com- 
mon is  their  essential  characteristic ;  therefore,  one  of  their  main 
qualities^  and  to  recognize  this  is  of  greatest  importance  for  think- 
ing and  for  judgment.  Thus  the  child  learns  to  find  some  com- 
mon features  in  various  objects,  to  gain,  therefore,  some  abstract 
ideas.  I  have  already  mentioned  that  children  have  great  diffi- 
culty in  distinguishing  essential  things  from  unessential.  It  be- 
comes, therefore,  necessary  to  help  them  to  learn  this  practically, 
and  also  keep  watch  that  they  should,  first  of  all,  get  the  correct 
idea  of  everything.  It  would  be  wrong,  however,  to  offer  them 
the  right  opinion  at  once;  it  should  be,  rather,  left  to  them  to 
form  their  own  ideas,  because  this  acts  as  a  powerful  stimulation 
to  think,  and  help  should  be  offered  them  only  when  it  is  noticed 
that  they  are  on  the  wrong  track.  Such  help  and  correcting 
they  remember  then  for  a  long  time.  Self-correction  in  children 
I  consider  of  utmost  importance.  As  an  example  I  may  mention 
again  the  little  Dutch  girl  of  whom  I  spoke  before.  When  I 
asked  the  child,  "What  is  a  butcher?"  and  she  answered  me, 
"He  is  a  man  who  has  a  white  apron  on,"  I  asked  her  whether 
"A  child's  nurse,  who  also  wears  a  white  apron,  is  a  butcher?" 
The  child  corrected  herself,  and  said  that  "A  butcher  is  a  man 
who  kills  animals."  By  pointing  out  such  mistakes,  made  either 
through  inexperience  or  through  being  lazy  toward  thinking,  such 
mistakes  may  be  avoided,  and  at  the  same  time  the  child  may 
be  stimulated  to  think  and  to  widen  his  practical  knowledge  with- 
out causing  him  very  much  trouble.  It  would  be  very  appro- 
priate if  the  parents  or  the  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools 
would  introduce  such  reflecting  hours  (Begriffsstunden)  once  or 
twice  a  week,  whereby  one  hour  could  be  devoted  to  explanation 
of  various  occupations,  and  another  to  the  consideration  of  sub- 
jects such  as  hygiene  and  the  proper  care  of  the  body.  In  the 
hours  devoted  to  the  study  of  religion,  history,  geography,  there 
is  a  good  opportunity  to  make  conceivable  to  children  such 
abstract  conceptions  as  human  friendship,  patriotism,  steadfast- 


Mental  Education  of  Children.  371 

ness  in  misfortune,  etc.  Such  ideas  as  are  liable  to  promote 
qualities  of  the  soul  could  be  best  implanted  during  the  instruc- 
tion in  religion.  Whatever  may  be  the  ideas  about  religion  of 
a  grown-up  person,  that  is  his  own  concern ;  but  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  teach  religion  to  children,  so  as  to  offer  them  an 
inner  moral  support.  How  could  a  State  exist  at  all  if  its  citi- 
zens would  be  kept  from  misdeeds  only  through  fear  of  punish- 
ment by  higher  authorities,  but  not  by  the  voice  of  their  own 
consciences?  The  child  should  be  inoculated  with  the  belief 
that  there  is  a  higher  power  who  sees  everything,  even  the  most 
hidden  things,  and  also  that  all  bad  deeds  become  ultimately 
punished.  The  conceptions  of  humanitarianism  and  altruism  are 
best  and  easiest  taught  through  religion.  Of  course,  a  child 
who  is  mentally  of  a  low  grade  would  be  kept  from  bad  acts 
only  by  fear  of  punishment,  but  an  intelligent  child  would  be 
influenced  by  comprehending  the  meanness  of  bad  acts,  and  with- 
out the  fear  of  punishment  sooner  or  later.  Such  a  moral  sup- 
port— altruism — could  be  best  taught  the  children  practically 
by  arranging  that  they  should  have  to  care  for  the  comfort  of 
others.  This  is  done  by  the  Montessori  method,  whereby  every 
morning  one  of  the-  children,  in  turn,  has  to  examine  the  others 
to  know  whether  they  have  clean  ears,  clean  teeth,  and  clean 
hands,  and  take  them  to  a  wash-basin  if  anything  is  found  not 
right.  One  child  must  watch  that  the  others  should  be  orderly 
dressed  and  make  a  good  appearance  in  general.  This  gives  also 
very  effective  instruction  in  personal  hygiene,  and  because  it  is 
just  children  who  are  so  susceptible  tO'  all  kinds  of  infectious 
diseases,  in  particular  to  inflammation  in  the  throat,  to  diph- 
theria, these  diseases  are  liable  to  be  more  easily  prevented  in 
that  way.  That  alcohol,  immoderation  in  eating,  uncleanliness 
are  very  injurious  could  be  practically  demonstrated  with  kine- 
matographic  pictures.  The  preparation  for  practical  life  could  be 
accomplished  best  by  forming  their  ideas  under  the  guidance  of 
wise  parents  and  teachers,  and  prevention  of  false  and  injurious 
conclusions,  considering  the  fact  that  up  to  the  time  of  puberty 


'^''72  Human  Intelligence. 


children  can  only  do  concrete  thinking.  It  is  probably  not  so 
much  needed  for  intelligent  children,  but  much  more  so  for 
feeble-minded  and  dull  children. 

Excursions  in  the  country  with  the  teacher  are  of  the  great- 
est advantage.  It  gives  an  opportunity  for  presenting  to  the  con- 
tinually inquisitively  asking  children  full  chapters  on  natural 
history;  for  instance,  about  the  life  habit  of  insects  which  are 
injurious  to  agriculture,  and  about  others,  again,  as  the  stag- 
beetle,  which  are  useful.  Explanations  can  also  be  given  to  them 
of  the  utility  of  many  singing  birds,  and  here  the  opportunity 
may  be  taken  of  appealing  to  them  for  the  protection  of  these 
birds,  as  a  practical  lesson  in  altruism;  how  necessary  it  is  to 
respect  the  life  of  all  living  creatures,  except  they  do  damage  to 
ourselves  or  to  plants  which  are  helping  to  support  us.  By 
showing  them  how  the. plants  which  grow  in  the  shade  are  not 
so  well  developed  offers  the  best  opportunity  to  give  the  children 
practical  instruction  in  hygiene  and  develop  in  them  love  for 
light  and  sunshine.  By  teaching  them  that  plants  are  just  as 
much  living  beings  as  man  and  animals,  they  are  taught  to 
respect  also  their  life  and  not  tear  them  out  by  the  roots  use- 
lessly and  destructively.  When,  moreover,  the  child  gets  into 
the  habit  of  sparing  the  lives  of  animals  and  plants,  it  will  con- 
tinue this  habit  when  it  grows  up,  and  will  spare  the  life  and 
health  of  its  fellow-men  in  body  as  well  as  in  soul;  and  will  do 
them  no  harm,  neither  by  words  nor  by  acts.  Such  instructions 
will  consequently  prove  to  be  an  important  step  to  the  perfecting 
of  the  growing  generations  of  mankind,  and  the  best  means 
for  the  prevention  of  crime.  For  that  reason  the  country  homes 
which  give  such  practical  instructions  in  nature,  such  as  have 
been  introduced  particularly  by  Lietz  in  Germany  and  Dr.  Reddy 
in  England,  are  to  be  wished  the  best  success  from  the  bottom 
of  the  heart.  Young  people  in  general  should  spend  all  of  their 
spare  time  in  God's  nature,  hindered  as  little  as  possible  by  home 
work.  Strolling  about  in  the  country,  over  field  and  in  the 
woods  can  develop  the  senses  much  better  than  sitting  around  in 


Mental  Education  of  Children.  373 

the  bad  air  of  overfilled  classrooms,  and,  therefore,  the  general 
introduction  of  the  English  scout  associations  and  of  the  path- 
finders, which  have  already  done  much  good,  can  be  most  warmly 
commended. 

Development  of  practical  conceptions  and  teaching  of  cor- 
rect sight  and  observation,  indispensable  requisites  for  correct 
thinking,  can  also  be  very  much  promoted  by  the  modelling  of 
various  objects — if  possible  from  memory — in  clay  or  plastolin. 
Drawing  of  the  objects  is  also  of  great  advantage,  because  it 
sharpens  the  observation;  and  it  also  offers  an  opportunity  to 
find  out  whether  the  child  has  at  all  the  faculty  to  observe.  In 
the  Montessori  method  children  of  5  or  6  years  are  given 
drawings  of  objects,  which  they  have  to  fill  out  with  various 
colors.  In  modelling  with  clay,  and  in  the  selection  of  colors,  it 
can  be  found  out  whether  we  have  to  deal  with  an  intelligent 
child  or  with  a  stupid  one.  The  latter  will  paint  a  cow  blue  or 
green,  and  from  this  conclusions  may  be  drawn.  In  the  educa- 
tion of  the  stupid  children  particularly  the  Montessori  method 
acts  grandly,  because  it  engages  the  attention  which  is  lacking 
in  such  children,  but  it  is  also  good  for  intelligent  children, 
because  it  is  based  upon  a  continuous  correct  observation,  and, 
first  of  all,  sharpens  that.  And  the  ability  of  correct  observa- 
tion is  the  surest  foundation  for  the  development  of  great  mental 
faculties  and  talents. 

A  great  advantage  of  this  method  also  is  that  it  does  not' 
put  any  strain  on  the  child,  that  he  learns  with  pleasure,  and  this 
is  the  safest  protection  against  mental  overexertion.  This  is  par- 
ticularly to  be  valued  in  the  education  of  stupid  children,  because 
overexertion  of  such  may  act  very  fatally. 


CHAPTER    XLVIII. 

Bad  and  Dull  Pupils — Causes  of  Dullness  and 
Its  Treatment. 

Darwin  writes  of  a  monkey  trainer  who  was  willing  to 
pay  a  double  price  for  monkeys  if  he  could  borrow  them  for  a 
few  days  before  purchasing  them.  He  then  observed  how  they 
behaved  during  instruction.  If  he  noticed  that  the  monkey 
would  watch  every  insect  which  happened  to  fly  by  during 
instruction,  he  would  refuse  to  buy,  but  when  it  would  stick  to 
his  business,  he  concluded  that  he  could  use  it.  This  proved  that 
the  monkey  trainer  was  an  excellent  pedagogue.  With  children 
it  is  exactly  the  same ;  as  soon  as  a  child  becomes  absent-minded 
during  instruction  and  pays  no  attention,  it  is  not  able  to  per- 
ceive anything,  it  cannot  note  anything,  and,  therefore,  can  learn 
nothing.  If  this  happens  not  only  temporarily,  but  the  inatten- 
tion remains  permanent,  he  will  make  a  bad  pupil.  Two  groups 
of  such  children  may  be  distinguished : 

( 1 )  Those  in  whom  the  will  to  learn  is  absent : 

(2)  Those  who  lack  the  ability  to  learn,  due  to  conditions 
which  are  not  under  the  control  of  their  will,  and  are  the  result 
of  congenital  predisposition.  When  the  inability  is  based  upon 
a  congenital  morbid  predisposition,  for  instance,  congenital 
feeble-mindedness,  there  is  also  often  present  a  weakness  of  the 
will,  so  that  inability  is  also  accompanied  by  unwillingness.  It 
then  naturally  becomes  difficult  to  apply  the  will  to  being  atten- 
tive, and  unreasonable  parents  may  whip  their  children  ever  so 
much,  and  they  may  be  punished  in  school  for  not  studying, 
it  may  lead  to  the  manifestation  of  all  kinds  of  bad  quali- 
ties, but  in  regard  to  scholarship,  surely,  nothing  will  be  gained. 
It  would  be  more  sensible  to  act  upon  the  congenital  inattentive- 
ness  and  inability  to  learn  in  a  salutary,  pedagogic  way.  Often 
the  true  character  of  such  children  is  not  recognized  at  all,  and 

(374) 


Bad  and  Dull  Pupils.  375 

what  is  actually  a  morbid  condition  is  considered  as  an  ill-will. 
Sometimes  an  idiotic  child  is  not  recognized  at  first  sight,  and 
the  same  may  happen  with  a  feeble-minded  and  dull  child,  for 
the  congenital  narrow-mindedness  and  dullness  frequently  re- 
main unnoticed  by  the  teacher,  unless  the  intelligence  is  examined 
by  an  expert, — a  subject  which  will  be  treated  in  a  later 
chapter.  Very  often  the  recognition  of  dullness  in  a  child  is 
made  difficult,  and  its  presence  is  veiled  by  the  fact  that  even 
feeble-minded  children  and  idiots  show  faculties  above  the  aver- 
age in  some  subjects,  and  especially  such  subjects  which  depend 
upon  an  excellent  mechanical  memory,  WitzeV  in  Warsaw, 
described  a  case  of  a  Jewish  girl  from  Poland,  who  became 
idiotic  after  typhoid  fever,  and  showed  an  extraordinary  talent 
for  multiplication.  She  was  able  to  multiply  in  her  mind  two 
two-digit  numbers  in  a  few  seconds,  sometimes  even  imme- 
diately. She  had  her  own  method  for  doing  it,  but  this  was 
also  only  a  mechanical  one.  Subtraction  and  addition  she  did 
badly.  Heller  mentions  a  case  of  a  mentally  low-grade  idiot  boy, 
who,  in  mentioning  a  date,  was  also  able  to  immediately  add  the 
corresponding  day  of  the  week,  and  with  perfect  positiveness,  at 
that.  He  was  a  living  calendar,  and  was  able,  besides  that,  to 
name  the  bill-of-fare  for  years  back.  He  was,  however,  unable 
to  do  any  summing  up,  even  the  simplest  kind.  This  boy  also 
had  the  faculty  of  rumination,  which  may  be  observed  some- 
times in  idiotic  children.  The  food  which  he  swallowed  he  was 
able  to  belch  up  again  in  small  balls,  and,  like  a  ruminant,  chew 
it  over  again.  Some  years,  ago  Witzmann  demonstrated  in 
the  Society  of  Neurology  and  Psychiatry  such  a  feeble-minded 
calendar  artist,  who  was  able  to  give  all  the  past  and  future 
dates  of  the  years  between  looo  and  2000.  Not  rarely,  feeble- 
minded and  dull  children  show  also  a  particular  musical  mem- 
ory, as  well  as  great  musical  faculties  in  general.  Not  long  ago 
I  saw  a  6-year-old  boy  from  Berlin  who  betrayed  great  musical 


1  Adam  Witzel,  Archiv  fiir  Psychiatric  und  Nervenkrankheiten,   1904, 
xxxviii,  S.  122. 


7i76  Human  Intelligence. 


faculties,  but  in  speaking  he  stammered,  and  was  so  dull  and 
stupid  that  if,  on  coming  home  and  wishing,  as  was  his  habit, 
to  put  his  own  coat  on  the  bed,  he  found  something  else  already 
lying  there,  he  would  stand  helpless  with  the  coat  on  his  arm 
waiting  until  somebody  would  take  it  away  from  him.  A  little 
6-month-old  brother  showed  in  the  face  a  typical  myxedematous 
look. 

If  a  child  is  dull  and  shows  no  attention  for  learning  and 
instruction,  as  a  rule,  some  morbid  conditions  are  to  blame. 
Some  months  ago  I  visited  the  Children's  Home  (Casa  dei 
Bambini)  of  the  humanitarian  society  in  Mailand,  where  the 
children  are  instructed  according  to  the  Montessori  method  by 
exercising  the  senses  and  by  manual  training.  I  found  there  all 
the  children  very  diligently  working  excepting  two  of  them ;  one 
of  these,  a  4^ -year-old  child,  with  a  large  head  (not  hydro- 
cephalus) and  puffed-up  red  face,  was  standing  inactive  and 
looking  around  absent-mindedly  and  showing  not  the  slightest 
interest.  When  I  inquired  of  the  teacher  about  the  origin  of 
the  boy  she  told  me  that  his  father  was  an  alcoholic  and  his 
mother  had  heart  disease.  Moreover,  this  child  was  of  an  angry 
disposition,  and  easily  became  furious  and  then  violent  toward 
his  comrades.  This  is  a  very  instructive  example  of  the  develop- 
ment of  a  criminal  disposition  in  children  of  alcoholics.  During 
my  visits  at  educational  institutions  I  was  able  frequently  to 
observe  that  in  the  cases  where  a  child  was  always  lazy  and  dull, 
there  were  deficiencies  either  in  the  predisposition  or  in  the 
environment.  They  were  either  offspring  of  parents  suffering 
from  some  cachectic  diseases  such  as  tuberculosis  in  particular, 
or  from  alcoholics  and  syphilitics.  Particularly  often  they  were 
anemic,  and  badly  nourished  children.  There  is  hardly  any 
doubt  that  underfeeding  may  be  the  reason  why  the  children 
learn  badly  and  are  dull.  We  will  take  up  the  subject  of 
rational  feeding  of  school-children  in  the  next  chapter. 

The  reason  why  alcohol,  syphilis  and  tuberculosis  may  so 
often  be  the  cause  of  feeble-mindedness,  narrow-mindedness  and 


Bad  and  Dull  Pupils.  2)77 

dullness  we  have  already  considered  repeatedly.  These  condi- 
tions injure  the  thyroid  gland  and  other  ductless  glands  of  the 
newborn,  which  have  the  greatest  influence  upon  mental  develop- 
ment. In  such  children  are  often  found  adenoid  vegetations 
which  obstruct  respiration,  and  thus  injure  also  the  blood  and 
oxygen  supply  of  the  central  nervous  system.  The  above-men- 
tioned diseases  injure  the  thyroid  glands  of  the  parents,  and 
this  condition  is  then  inherited  by  the  children,  as  already  men- 
tioned, and  as  was  pointed  out  in  particular  by  the  investigator 
of  the  thyroid,  Hertoghe.^ 

Hertoghe  has  shown  that  children  of  parents  suffering 
from  chronic  benign  hypothyroidismus,  therefore  from  a  weak- 
ness of  the  thyroid,  remain  backward  in  their  studies.  Ortho- 
graphy is  very  difficult  for  them,  and  they  are  not  able  to 
express  themselves  properly.  Hertoghe  says  about  them :  "Leur 
language  est  rudimentaire  et  ils  sont  malaises  a  I'instruire."  He 
also  mentions  that  such  children,  even  when  they  are  already 
well  grown  up,  "Ont  une  peine  infinie  a  se  loger  dans  la  tete  les 
notions  les  plus  elementaires  de  I'orthographie.  II  leur  est  aussi 
impossible  d'avoir  une  orthographie  correcte  que  d'avoir  les  pieds 
chauds :  I'organisation  cerebrale  est  incomplete."  Hertoghe  goes 
even  so  far  as  to  assume  that  if  a  grown-up  person  with  a  care- 
ful education  should  nevertheless  find  spelling  difficult,  we  are 
justified  in  suspecting  a  weakness  of  the  thyroid  gland  as  the 
cause  of  it.  Such  individuals  are  very  poor  in  arithmetic.  Of 
course,  the  bad  school  record  of  such  children  may  also  be  caused 
by  the  weakness  of  the  sense-organs,  which  is  quite  often  present 
in  such  conditions.  In  association  with  adenoid  vegetations 
occur  catarrhal  conditions  in  the  ear  with  defective  hearing  in 
one  or  both  ears.  Also  through  nearsightedness  the  pupils  are 
often  prevented  from  advancing  with  the  rest  of  the  pupils.  It 
is,  therefore,  the  duty  of  the  school  physician  to  examine  all 
the  children  carefully  in  the  directiorh  indicated,  and  report  the 


2  Hertoghe,    Der    chronische    gutartige    Hypothyroidismus.      Lehmann, 
Munchen,  1899, 


378  Human  Intelligence. 

results  to  the  teachers.     Often  dullness  is  presumed,  where  it  is 
really  a  case  of  nearsightedness  or  bad  hearing. 

If  we  want  to  improve  the  dullness  of  the  children,  we 
must,  therefore,  act  upon  the  cause  underlying  it.  The  most 
important  causes  are,  as  already  mentioned,  weakness  and  faulty 
development  of  these  ductless  glands,  which  dominate  the  men- 
tal faculties,  and  of  which  the  thyroid  and  the  sexual  glands  are 
the  most  important.  In  many  of  those  children  which  are 
entirely  unable  to  learn,  a  substantial  improvement  may  be 
obtained  by  treatment  with  thyroid.  They  become  more  atten- 
tive and  retain  better  what  they  have  learned,  as  I  have  noticed 
in  many  children.  It  is  of  great  importance  to  begin  with  the 
treatment  very  early  and  not  to  wait  until  the  age  of  puberty  is 
reached.  Such  a  treatment  may  be  of  great  benefit,  not  only  in 
cretinous  children,  but,  as  numerous  experiments  by  Hertoghe^ 
have  shown,  also  in  cases  of  simple  thyroid  weakness. 

Hand-in-hand  with  this  organotherapeutics  must  go  also  a 
corresponding  mental  education.  What  characterizes  a  dull 
child  is  that  it  is  able  to  form  ideas  only  with  difficulty.  It  is 
not  able  to  distinguish  between  essential  things  and  unessential, 
nor  to  see  which  features  are  common  to  all  objects.  It  has, 
therefore,  difficulties  in  establishing  the  differences  between 
objects.  The  store  of  its  thoughts  and  conceptions  is  not  great. 
The  feeble-minded  child  is  a  real  materialist.  Only  what  he  can 
touch  and  feel  is  of  value  to  him ;  he  is  only  interested  in  the 
external  appearance  of  things ;  he  is  entirely  lacking  in  sensing 
that  which  lies  hidden  behind.  Ideal  conceptions  are  for  him 
something  above  the  skies,  and  far  from  his  understanding. 
We  observe  the  same,  more  or  less,  in  the  dull  pupil.  His  circle 
of  vision  is  narrow  and  limited.  Only  what  he  knows  from 
experience  and  from  sight  enters  his  mind.  The  perception  of 
something  unknown  is  much  more  difficult  for  him,  because  he  is 
poor  in  perceptions,  and  has  difficulty  in  forming  ideas.  The 
only  and  surest  way  for  his  mental  education  is  practical  dem- 

3  Hertoghe,  /.  c. 


Bad  and  Dull  Pupils.  379 

onstration.  For  that  reason  all  that  has  been  mentioned  in  the 
foregoing  chapter  may  be  applied  in  a  still  higher  degree  to  the 
dull  children.  By  the  Montessori  method  we  are  able  to  facili- 
tate learning  in  normal  children,  and  thus  prevent  their  mental 
overstrain;  and  it  is  also  the  easiest  way  for  educating  dull  chil- 
dren, because  everything  is  taught  by  practical  demonstration, 
by  seeing,  feeling,  touching.  Particularly  in  the  dull  is  it  of 
greatest  importance  to  exercise  the  senses,  because  here  weak- 
ness of  the  sensory  organs  and  their  faulty  development  is  most 
frequently  found.  Therefore,  this  method,  which  teaches  correct 
sight  and,  based  upon  it,  correct  judgment,  is  the  best  for  dull 
children.  Here  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  mental 
overexertion  should  be  avoided.  The  more  so  in  such  children, 
because  it  may  lead  to  very  bad  consequences — the  mental  con- 
dition may  get  worse,  and  much  more  so,  however,  in  the  feeble- 
minded children. 

Strohmayer"*  mentions  a  case  in  which,  through  overexer- 
tion in  a  course  of  private  instruction,  the  condition  became  so 
aggravated  that  the  child  had  forgotten  how  to  speak,  to  stand 
or  to  walk.  Heller,^  Strohmayer,  and  athers  have  observed  in 
overstrained,  low-grade  children,  as  the  result  of  overexertion, 
the  appearance  of  moral  defects,  for  instance,  stealing,  which  at 
the  same  time  was  done  in  an  entirely  senseless  way,  as  they 
stole  things  that  were  of  no  use  to  them  whatever. 

The  instruction  by  play  and  demonstration  has  also  the 
great  advantage  that  it  does  not  permit  any  monotony.  The 
latter,  in  particular,  is  liable  to  cause  feelings  of  disgust  and, 
following  on  it,  mental  overstrain.  During  play  it  is  also  of 
great  advantage  to  model  objects  of  clay  or  plastolin  as  a  pre- 
liminary step  to  manual  instruction.  The  faculties  of  children 
may  be  best  found  out  from,  their  inclinations  to  various  kinds 
of  play.    I  have  seen  in  the  school  a  la  Montessori  that  the  most 


4  Vorlesungen    uber    die    Psychopathologie    des    Kindesalters,    S.    166, 
quoted  after  Heller. 

5  Heller,  Grundriss  der  Heilpadagogik,  S.  210,  Leipzig,  1912. 


380  Human  Intelligence. 

intelligent  children  select  plays  in  which  various  colors  and 
marks  are  to  be  recognized,  while  the  dull  and  unintelligent  are 
more  interested  in  plays  connected  with  manual  labor,  such,  for 
instance,  as  putting  in  plugs  in  corresponding  holes.-  By  recog- 
nizing these  different  kinds  of  inclinations  and  their  variations, 
and  by  promoting  them,  it  is  possible  to  make  of  such  children 
useful  members  of  society.  Some  of  them  are  indeed  endowed 
with  great  faculties  in  certain  domains,  such  as  music,  languages, 
and  arithmetic.  If,  then,  to  such  one-sided  gifts  there  is  added 
great  diligence,  I  consider  it  possible  that  such  dull,  unintelli- 
gent children  may  progress  very  far,  and  even  become  distin- 
guished scientists.  With  their  one-sided  faculty  and  much  dili- 
gence such  individuals  may  be  able  to  work  out  special  problems 
into  their  minutest  details,  and  even  publish  books  and  scientific 
treatises  of  value.  Of  course,  in  their  publications  we  would 
search  in  vain  for  some  original  idea,  and  everywhere  there 
would  be  noted  signs  of  a  mechanical  and  technical  gift,  and  a 
lacking  of  any  kind  of  originality. 


CHAPTER    XLIX. 

Diligence,   Laziness,   and   Absent-mindedness — Treat- 
ment OF  Laziness  and  Absent-mindedness. 

Anyone  visiting  the  wards  in  insane  asylums  would  notice 
that  many  of  the  patients,  particularly  the  depressed,  melan- 
cholic, and  high-grade  idiots,  are  sitting  around  entirely  useless 
and  inactive,  or  are  walking  around  in  the  garden  in  an  aimless 
manner,  just  as  may  be  observed  in  a  dog  whose  large  brain  has 
been  removed.  Also  in  the  modern  insane  asylums,  where  pro- 
vision is  made  for  the  patients  to  engage  in  some  occupation, 
such  patients  want  to  do  absolutely  nothing  but  lie  around  lazily 
all  day. 

In  great  contrast  with  these  are  another  kind  of  patients, 
mainly  such  who  present  a  state  of  more  or  less  maniacal  exal- 
tation, although  not  of  the  highest  grade.  Whereas  these 
patients,  at  other  times,  could  not  be  induced  to  do  any  kind 
of  work  and  in  their  state  of  melancholia  waste  their  whole  day 
sitting  in  one  position,  they  are  now  very  animated  and  there- 
fore ready  to  do  any  kind  of  work,  or  if  no  work  can  be  found 
for  them  at  the  institution,  they  are  continuously  occupied  with 
some  kind  of  art  corresponding  to  their  faculties,  and,  strangely 
enough,  under  the  influence  of  the  exaltation,  they  sometimes  do 
things  in  which  they  have  formerly  shown  no  ability  whatever. 
During  my  visit  to  the  insane  asylum  at  Nizza  I  observed  a  case 
where  a  patient  was  continually  doing  caligraphic  work,  and 
drew  the  nicest  girls'  heads  with  the  pen.  He  manifested  such 
great  artistic  talent  that  he  could  have  become  renowned  in  it 
outside  of  the  asylum,  and  still  he  was  nothing  more  than  a  very 
plain  laborer.  He  was  as  diligent  as  if  he  was  paid  for  it. 
Similar    cases    are   mentioned    by    Lombroso.^      Some    of    his 


1  Lombroso,  L'homme  de  Genie,  III  Partie,  S.  318,  IV  Aufl.    Paris,  1909. 

(381) 


382  Human  Intelligence. 


patients  had  such  an  impulse  for  artistic  activity  that  they  cov- 
ered the  walls,  the  tables,  and  even  the  floors  with  paintings. 
One  of  these  patients  was,  before  the  outbreak  of  his  insanity, 
a  mediocre  painter,  and  it  was  actually  remarkable  how  this 
patient  became  more  perfected  during  or,  as  Lombroso  said,  on 
account  of  his  disease.  One  day  during  one  of  his  attacks  that 
patient  made  a  copy  of  the  Madonna  of  Raphael  which  was 
awarded  the  first  prize  at  an  exhibition. 

Very  remarkable,  also,  is  the  case  of  the  painter  Magnoni, 
from  Reggio,  who  suffered  from  dementia  and  delusion  of  great- 
ness. For  fourteen  years  in  succession  he  had  no  desire  to  work. 
He  was  then  encouraged  by  Dr.  Zani  to  do  some  work  again, 
and  in  response  he  again  took  hold  of  the  palette  and  covered 
the  walls  of  the  asylum  with  very  wonderful  paintings.  One  of 
these  paintings  represented  the  starving  Count  Ugolin  with  his 
children,  and  it  was  so  magnificently  executed  and  so  true  to 
nature  that  one  insane  woman  in  the  asylum  threw  pieces  of 
meat  at  the  painted  Ugolin,  so  that  he  and  his  children  should 
not  starve.  The  grease-spots  left  by  the  meat  on  the  painting 
could  be  seen  for  a  long  time  after.^ 

A  very  instructive  instance  of  the  influence  of  attacks  of 
mania  upon  the  increase  of  the  faculties  and  the  development  of 
diligence,  I  may  even  say,  of  a  morbid  diligence,  is  the  case  of 
a  very  plain  mason  who,  as  related  by  Lombroso,  became  a 
painter  while  in  the  insane  asylum  at  Pesaro.  He  made  very 
clever  caricatures  of  the  employes  of  the  institution,  condemning 
them,  in  picture,  to  the  most  terrible  punishment.  When  it  hap- 
pened one  day  that  the  cook,  a  jovial  looking  stout  man  with 
full  cheeks,  denied  him  a  favorite  dish,  he  made  a  painting  rep- 
resenting the  cook  in  the  position  of  "Ecce  Homo"  before  a 
fence,  which  prevented  the  starving  from  getting  hold  of  a 
great  abundance  of  tasteful  and  tempting  dishes  displayed  on 
the  other  side  of  the  fence. 


2  Gazzetta  del  Manicomio  di  Reggio,  1876,  quoted  after  Lombroso. 


Diligence,  Ladness,  Absent-Mindedness.  383 

I  want  to  emphasize,  again,  that  these  "attacks"  of  diligence 
have  been  caused  by  the  attacks  of  mania.  We  have  repeatedly 
mentioned  that  in  the  state  of  exaltation,  in  all  probability,  much 
more  blood  is  supplied  to  the  brain  than  usual;  in  the  state  of 
melancholic  depression  again  we  expect  a  weaker  supply  of 
arterial  blood  to  the  brain-cortex.  And  now  we  see  here  the 
contrast  between  diligence,  on  the  one  hand,  and  laziness  and 
lack  of  desire  to  do'  any  kind  of  work,  on  the  other.  Moreover, 
we  can  observe  daily,  under  normal  conditions,  that,  when  the 
brain-cortex  receives  a  greater  supply  of  blood,  energy  and  desire 
to  work  are  increased. 

After  partaking  of  coffee  or  tea,  particularly  if  it  is  a  strong 
infusion,  most  people  feel  stimulated  to  work.  Indeed,  many 
people  can  go  to  work  after  a  plentiful  meal  only  after  they  have 
taken  their  black  coffee.  The  reason  that  after  the  use  of  coffee 
or  tea  the  blood-vessels  of  the  brain  become  dilated  and  the 
brain-cortex  becomes  better  supplied  with  blood  is  the  best 
explanation.  On  the  other  hand,  we  know,  however,  that  after 
a  riph  meal  disturbances  of  the  general  circulation  take  place, 
because  great  quantities  of  blood  rush  to  the  digestive  organs, 
whose  functions  are  greatly  increased.  So  much  less  of  the 
blood,  consequently,  reaches  the  brain  and,  therefore,  the  blood- 
supply  to  the  brain-cortex  is  diminished,  and  this  causes  sleepi- 
ness after  meals ;  and  there  is  then,  naturally,  no  desire  to  work. 
Moreover,  we  see  always  an  undesire  for  mental  and  physical 
work  manifested  when  the  blood-circulation  in  the  brain-cortex 
is  made  difficult.  We  see  this  very  often  in  anemic  and  chlorotic 
girls,  who  manifest  signs  of  fatigue,  not  only  of  the  body,  but 
also  of  the  mind.  Something  similar  we  also  see  in  convales- 
cence after  grave  diseases  associated  with  fever.  Diseases  of 
the  body,  particularly  those  associated  with  great  pain,  have  a 
very  bad  effect  upon  the  desire  to  work,  and  make  work  impos- 
sible, on  account  of  the  fact  that  all  attention  is  turned  to  the 
bodily  ailments.  The  concentration  of  attention  on  one  definite 
subject  is  thus  prevented,  and  any  kind  of  mental  work  is  ren- 


384  Human  Intelligence. 


dered  difficult,  and,  as  a  rule,  made  entirely  impossible.  As  soon 
as  attention  is  lacking  absent-mindedness  is  noticeable.  Such  a 
condition  we  find  very  often  in  many  mental  diseases.  The 
insane  and  most  of  the  feeble-minded  and  imbeciles  are  unable 
to  give  their  attention  to  one  definite  subject,  but  again  and  again 
deviate  from  it.  We  observe  the  same  in  some  neuroses,  in 
neurasthenia,  and  hysteria.  On  the  other  hand,  we  sometimes 
observe  absent-mindedness  in  very  intelligent  individuals,  even 
in  geniuses.  In  the  latter  instances,  the  cause  is  not  the  inability 
to  concentrate  attention  upon  one  subject;  on  the  contrary,  they 
possess  this  ability  in  the  highest  degree,  but  the  attention  is 
directed  only  to  the  one  subject  in  which  they  are  particularly 
interested,  or  to  one  problem  which  they  wish  to  solve.  The 
latter  thus  monopolizes  their  whole  attention,  so  to  speak;  they 
think  day  and  night  only  of  that  one  subject,  and  thus  it  hap- 
pens that  they  pay  no  attention  whatever  to  the  occurrences  of 
everyday  life,  which,  of  course,  appear  to  them  as  unessential. 
Such  individuals  are  so  absent-minded  that  they  ignore  every- 
thing else  besides  that  one  question  which  occupies  their  mind. 
For  instance,  they  may  search  for  hours  for  their  ej^eglasses 
and  find  them  attached  to  the  nose ;  or  attempt  to  pay  in  a  restau- 
rant three  times  for  the  meal  which  they  have  already  paid  for. 
The  great  mathematician  Ampere  was  so  absent-minded  that  he 
once,  to  the  amusement  of  his  students,  used  the  blackboard  rag, 
instead  ol  his  handkerchief,  to  blow  his  nose  in.  What  was  he 
thinking  about  at  that  time?  I  may  mention  here,  also,  the  great 
forgetfulness  which  characterized  such  men  as  Kant,  Rousseau, 
Faraday,  etc.  Kant  was,  as  a  child,  so  forgetful  that  while  he 
was  playing  in  the  street  he  would  leave  his  school-books  some- 
where, forget  them,  and  then  receive  his  punishment  in  school 
for  it.  Rousseau  complains  in  his  .  "Confessions"  that  he  could 
not  remember  anything  and  must  write  everything  down.  In 
the  insane,  who  are  indeed  not  far  from  geniuses,  similar  things 
are  often  found. 

Fundamentally  different  from  the  just-mentioned  absent- 


Diligence,  Laziness,  Absent-Mindedness.  385 

mindedness  is  that  weakness  of  memory  which  we  find  in 
imbeciles  and  the  feeble-minded.  Whereas,  in  the  great  minds 
mentioned  above  it  was  due  to  the  greatest  strain  of  the  will  to 
work  and  concentrate  all  their  attention  on  one  single  subject 
with  the  elimination  and  ignoring  of  all  others,  the  feeble- 
minded lack  altogether  the  will  and  ability  to  concentrate  the 
attention  upon  any  one  subject.  Feeble-minded  children  we  fre- 
quently recognize  by  their  absent-mindedness.  The  latter  is  also 
a  conspicuous  feature  in  some  processes  connected  with  the  func- 
tions of  the  sexual  glands.  So  it  is  manifest  in  some  physiolog- 
ical processes  of  the  latter,  particularly  in  child  nursing;  also  in 
gynecological  affections,  such  as  difficulties  of  menstruation, 
irregularities  during  puberty,  and  in  the  climacteric.  Similarly 
also  in  total  sexual  abstinence;  old  maids,  for  instance,  often 
walk  in  the  streets,  so  deeply  engaged  in  thought,  that  they 
notice  nobody.  Most  frequently,  however,  absent-mindedness 
occurs  in  masturbating  men,  as  well  as  women.  As  an  example 
of  absent-mindedness  occurring  during  puberty,  I  would  like  to 
mention  here  the  case  of  a  young  girl  from  Berlin,  who  is  now 
14  years  of  age.  Until  her  twelfth  year  she  was  a  very  intelli- 
gent child,  and  manifested  a  particularly  great  gift  for  history. 
Suddenly  and  at  once;  as  the  mother  told  me,  the  child  became 
lazy  and  absent-minded.  This  child,  who  formerly  was  very 
smart,  at  once  became  very  stupid,  so  that  the  mother,  who  could 
not  imderstand  it,  thought  nothing  good  could  become  of  her. 
She  wanted  only  to  talk,  but  not  to  work  nor  to  learn.  In  his- 
tory, in  which  she  was  formerly  the  best  pupil,  she  got  a  4.  At 
the  age  of  13^,  after  a  slight  swelling  of  thyroid  became  mani- 
fest months  before,  menstruation  set  in,  and  after  that  the  whole 
picture  changed  at  one  stroke,  as  it  were.  The  child  exhibited 
again  a  desire  to  work,  and  developed  perceptibly  in  body  and 
in  mind.  She  became  as  intelligent  as  she  was  formerly  and 
gave  no  cause  for  complaint. 

Absent-mindedness  occurs  in  children  very  often.     In  many 
cases  it  is  due  to  adenoid  vegetations  in  the  nose.    In  such  cases 

25 


386  Human  Intelligence. 


disturbances  of  blood-circulation  in  the  nose  take  place,  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  nose  becomes  highly  hyperemic,  and 
on  account  of  the  previously  described  relations  existing  between 
the  blood-circulation  in  the  nose  and  that  of  the  brain,  the  blood- 
supply  of  the  brain-cortex  becomes  impaired.  Such  children,  as 
a  rule,  suffer  from  lack  of  desire  to  work,  absent-mindedness, 
and  inability  to  concentrate  attention.  This  condition  is,  there- 
fore, called  by  Guye^  "aprosexia  nasalis." 

A  striking  indifference  of  mind,  lack  of  will-power,  lack  of 
desire  for  any  mental  or  physical  work  exists  also  in  degenera- 
tive conditions  of  the  thyroid,  and  particularly  so  in  myxedema. 
As  I  have  been  able  to  observe,  such  patients  are  so  slow-witted 
that  they  reflect  a  long  time  before  they  take  a  step.  They  pre- 
ferably remain  seated  for  hours,  similarly  to  the  above-mentioned 
patients  with  melancholic  depression.  As  in  myxedema,  here 
also  the  blood-flow  to  the  brain-cortex  is  diminished.  We  can 
easily  understand  this  if  we  keep  in  mind  the  influence  of  the 
thyroid  gland  upon  the  blood-supply  to  the  brain-cortex,  which 
we  have  frequently  considered.  We  have  repeatedly  pointed  out 
that  the  thyroid  is  the  regulator  of  the  blood-circulatory  condi- 
tions in  the  brain-cortex,  and  based  upon  that  we  can  best  under- 
stand the  favorable  effect  of  thyroid  treatment  upon  the  mental 
activity  in  cretins,  as  well  as  the  awakening  of  a  previously  com- 
plete lack  of  will-power  and  energy.  Instead  of  the  previously 
total  lack  of  attention,  an  increased  interest  for  all  kinds  of 
events  is  aroused.  I  would  lay  particular  emphasis  upon  the 
influence  of  thyroid  treatment  upon  the  will-power.  The  will — 
as  I  am  tempted  to  define  it — is  an  acute  and  continuous  con- 
centration of  attention  upon  one  definite  subject,  and  to  this  are 
continually  directed  all  our  thoughts;  the  stronger  the  will,  the 
more  it  becomes  manifested.  Such  a  straining  of  the  cerebrum 
depends  most  eminently  upon  the  blood-supply  to  the  brain- 
cortex.  The  greater  the  blood-flow  to  it,  as,  for  instance, 
through  animation  and  excitement,  the  more  is  the  increase  of 

3  Guye,  /.  c. 


Diligence,  Laziness,  Absent-Mindedness.  387 

the  will-power  and  energy,  and  desire  to  work;  but  the  weaker 
the  blood-circulation,  the  more  do  these  features  become  low- 
ered, and  with  it  also  the  pleasure  to  work.  How  distinctly  do 
we  observe  this,  for  example,  in  badly  nourished  individuals. 
That  through  bad  and  entirely  insufficient  food  men  lose  their 
will  and  energy,  and  become  entirely  unfit  to  do  any  mental 
work,  and  become  forgetful,  is  shown  distinctly  in  the  example 
of  Napoleon's  soldiers  during  their  retreat  from  Moscow.  Many 
of  them  even  forgot  the  names  of  the  most  common  objects,  and 
even  their  own  names.^  Of  course,  besides  hunger,  the  extreme 
cold,  played  its  part.  And  that  the  blood-circulation  in  the  brain 
is  particularly  influenced  by  the  food  and  changes  in  temperature 
we  have  repeatedly  mentioned  in  this  book,  as  well  as  in  the 
book,  "Rational  Diet." 

Much  more  frequently  than  perfectly  developed  myxedema 
occurs  simple  weakness  of  the  thyroid,  which  has  been  described 
more  thoroughly  by  Hertoghe,'^  and  also  by  the  author  in  his 
book  "Old  Age."  This  condition  can  be  observed  so  often  that 
it  may  be  called  an  everyday  occurrence,  and  offers  an  explana- 
tion for  the  frequency  of  the  cases  of  laziness  and  lack  of  desire  to 
work.  Of  particular  importance  is  the  influence  of  this  condi- 
tion upon  the  disposition.  Spells  of  melancholia — the  so-called 
"idees  noires"  of  neurasthenia  and  hysteria  belong  to  this — are 
very  frequent,  and  in  the  down-hearted  disposition,  due,  in  all 
probability,  to  the  existing  slower  blood-circulation  in  the  brain- 
cortex,  desire  to  work  is  lacking;  and  sluggishness  and  laziness 
are  the  result.  Here,  too,  also  belongs  that  mental  torpor,  that 
sluggishness  of  the  disposition  and  mind,  which  is  found  in  fat 
individuals,  as  described  in  Chapter  XV ;  and  this,  also,  originates 
from  weakness  of  the  thyroid.  If  thyroid  tablets  are  adminis- 
tered to  such  lazy,  indolent  pupils  or  adults,  one  may  some- 
times  see  real  wonders.     Laziness  disappears  and   gives  way 


4  Dr.  A.  Rose,  Napoleon  in  Russia.    Medicohistorical.    New  York,  1913. 

5  Hertoghe,    Der   chronische   gutartige   Hypothyreoidismus.     Munchen, 
Lehmanns  Verlag,  1898. 


388  Human  Intelligence. 


to  pleasure  for  work,  I  was  able  to  observe  in  such  pupils 
that  they  wanted  to  read  all  day,  and  did  not  put  the  book  out 
of  their  hands.  It  is  well  known  that  even  a  normal  individual 
does  not  always  feel  disposed  to  work.  I  have  experienced  it 
myself  when,  away  from  my  occupation  in  Carlsbad,  on  my  long 
journeys  during  the  winter,  I  had  no  desire  at  all  to  do  any  men- 
tal work.  If  I  then  took  i  or  2  thyroid  tablets  I  would  wake 
up  in  the  morning  with  more  desire  to  work.  I  would,  never- 
theless, not  consider  it  justifiable  to  use  thyroid  tablets  on  per- 
fectly healthy  individuals.  Thyroid  is  not  a  harmless  remedy; 
if  used  where  indicated  it  may  do  good  in  the  hands  of  an 
experienced  physician,  but  it  may  do  just  as  much  harm  if  used 
by  the  inexperienced. 


CHAPTER   L. 

Hints  in   Regard  to  the   Rational  Feeding  of 
School-children. 

In  visiting  various  educational  institutions  I  was  able  to 
observe  very  frequently  that  badly  nourished  pupils  do  less  well 
in  school  than  the  better  nourished.  They  remembered  badly 
what  they  had  learned,  and  were  often  absent-minded.  That  a 
child  which  grows  and,  in  addition  to  it,  studies,  must  use  up 
more  energy  is  clear,  and  when  we  consider  that  children  with 
their  greater  impulse  for  motility  must  use  so  much  more 
energy,  it  necessarily  follows  that  they  require  plentiful  food. 
The  latter  must  be  varied,  and  must  answer  various  require- 
ments. The  growing  skeleton  demands  much  phosphorus  and 
calcium,  and  the  same  is  true  in  regard  to  the  other  growing 
organs,  the  cells  of  which,  as,  for  instance,  of  the  brain,  also 
require  calcium  and  phosphorus.  The  tissues  are  urgently  in 
need  of  plentiful  albumin  to  replace  the  increased  loss  caused  by 
the  impulse  for  movement,  and,  consequently,  this  must  also  be 
supplied  in  sufficient  quantities.  But  sufficient  carbohydrates 
also  are  needed,  as  the  child's  organism  never  rests,  but  is  con- 
stantly in  motion,  so  that  the  muscles  urgently  require  glycogen, 
and  this  can  be  best  supplied  by  carbohydrate-containing  food, 
such  as  rice,  farina,  potatoes,  etc.  The  growing  skeleton  of  the 
child  requires,  first  of  all,  certain  minerals,  also  phosphorus  and 
calcium.  Just  as  the  impulses  for  the  function  of  the  central 
nervous  system  in  a  general  way  are  coming  from  outside  (sen- 
sory perceptions),  so  can  also  the  elements  required  for  the 
building  up  of  its  cells — phosphorus  and  calcium  play  here  an 
important  role — be  introduced  into  the  body  only  from  outside 
through  the  food.  The  best  way  to  give  children  phosphorus  is 
in  the  form  of  food  containing  very  much  phosphoric  nuclein- 

(389) 


390  Human  Intelligence. 


albumin  (investigations  of  O.  Loewy).^  Such  a  phosphorus- 
containing  food  is  animal  liver;  also  calf's  sweetbread,  kidney, 
etc. ;  also  eggs,  milk,  and  cheese.  If  we  want  to  give  school- 
children much  phosphorus,  the  above-named  foodstuffs  must  be 
plentifully  present  in  the  food,  particularly  because  they  contain 
at  the  same  time  much  calcium;  indeed,  they  even  belong  to 
those  substances  which  contain  calcium  most  richly.  Unfor- 
tunately, these  foodstuffs  belong,  at  the  same  time,  among  the 
most  expensive  things,  and,  therefore,  not  easily  accessible  to 
parents  of  poor  school-children.  These  would  also  do  better  to 
give  their  children,  instead  of  white  bread,  the  dark  rye  bread 
which  contains  more  phosphorus  and  calcium;  the  latter  are 
extracted  from  the  white  bread  by  the  city  mills,  and  it  is  to  be 
regretted,  therefore,  that  the  times  of  the  old  village  mills  are 
over.  It  would  be  possible,  however,  to  add  calcium  and  phos- 
phorus to  the  flour  by  dividing  it  into  two  parts  and  putting 
phosphorus  into  the  water  to  be  mixed  with  the  one  and  calcium 
into  the  water  to  be  mixed  with  the  other  part. 

A  rational  way  to  supply  school-children  with  phosphorus 
and  calcium  would  be  to  add  to  the  water  used  in  mixing  the  flour 
0.7  per  cent,  weight  molecules  of  Na2HP04,  and  0.55  per  cent, 
of  calcium  chloride.  It  is  then  formed  into  i  per  cent.  CaHPO^, 
and  it  would  thus  be  possible  to  give  easily  to  school-children  in 
bread  and  also  in  pudding  form  a  calcium  phosphate  which  has 
the  great  advantage  that  it  becomes  digested  in  the  stomach.^ 

The  bread  should,  of  course,  not  constitute  too  great  a  por- 
tion of  the  diet,  as  unfortunately  so  often  happens  in  poor 
families,  because  then,  as  is  shown  by  the  investigations  of 
Rubner  about  vegetarian  diet,  the  assimilation  of  other  food- 
stuffs is  prevented,  and  that  causes  a  weakened  condition,  and  this 
\VQ  must  avoid  by  all  means  in  school-children.    It  is  a  cruelty, 


1  0.  Loewy,  Untersuchungen  uber  den  Nukleinstofifwechsel,  Archiv  fiir 
Pathologie,  1906. 

2  I  am  under  obligation  to  Dr.  George  Lebfin,  the  food  chemist  in  Berlin, 
for  this  personal  suggestion. 


Fee'ding  of  School-children.  391 

indeed,  when  children,  who  must  study  during  their  growth 
period,  have  to  go  hungry.  In  this  way  learning  becomes 
difficuh,  and  the  object  of  schooHng  is  not  accomphshed. 
Considering  that  the  poor  children  constitute  the  majority  of 
the  future  aduhs,  that  they  represent  the  future  of  the  nation, 
it  becomes  evident  that  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken 
that  they  should  not  be  too  poorly  fed,  and  this  on  account  of 
the  tuberculosis  to  which  the  underfed  are  particularly  predis- 
posed.^ A  farmer  who  has  live  stock  would  always  take  partic- 
ular care  that  the  young  brood  should  be  in  good  condition.  It 
is  extremely  remarkable  that,  only  in  respect  to  the  human  stock, 
notwithstanding  all  humanitarian  fads  in  our  country,  so  little 
has  been  accomplished.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  main  care 
of  a  modern  State  is  to  have  a  good  army,  the  most  simple  fore- 
sight should  be  convincing  that  if  well-fed  school-children  make 
the  best  students,  they  are  going  to  make  later  the  most  intelli- 
gent soldiers.  That  at  the  present  time  wars  are  not  decided  by 
superior  power  and  bravery,  but  by  the  intelligence  of  the  leaders 
and  subordinates,  we  have  already  repeatedly  mentioned  in  this 
book.  Besides  that,  mentally  and  bodily  well-developed  school- 
children miay  later  become  the  most  useful  citizens,  whereas 
insufficiently  nourished  and  insufficiently  schooled  children  are 
only  liable  to  increase  the  number  of  those  elements  in  the  State 
which  cause  material  damage,  either  by  their  crimes  or  by 
required  expense  for  keeping  them  in  hospitals.  By  spending 
one  dollar  in  feeding  a  school-child,  one  hundred  dollars  could 
be  saved  later.  Considering  the  fact,  however,  that  the  State 
has  apparently  not  the  sense  for  such  good  business,  and  also 
has  no  money  at  its  disposal,  it  would  be  very  desirable  if,  fol- 
lowing the  example  of  many  great  American  and  German  towns, 
also  of  the  city  of  Bradford  in  England,  we  had  private  societies 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  school-children  with  a  din- 
ner    The  city  administrations  could  show  us  here  a  good  exam- 

"  Lorand,  Rational  Diet,  etc.,  Chapter  iii :    Tuberculosis  as  Sequel  Dis- 
ease of  Underfeeding. 


392  Human  Intelligence. 


pie,  and  the  money  spent  for  that  purpose  could  be  saved  in  the 
budget  of  the  hospitals  and  institutions  for  tuberculosis.  It 
would  also  be  a  brilliant  deed  to  culminate  the  life  of  many  a  man 
if,  instead  of  bequeathing  a  sum  of  money  for  a  mausoleum  to 
cover  his  decomposing  body,  he  would  leave  a  bequest  for  feed- 
ing poor  school-children.  The  best  tombstone  would  be  a  plate 
with  his  name  on  it  as  the  donor,  above  the  sickbed  of  a  poor 
child,  as  is  so  often  found  in  England  and  in  America,  and  so 
seldom  in  our  own  country ;  or  as  a  founder  of  a  home  for  feed- 
ing poor  school-children.  It  would  be  laudable,  also,  to  have  one's 
name  written  on  the  wall  in  the  vestibule  of  a  public  library  as 
being  its  founder,  because  anybody  who  helps  the  people  to  in- 
crease their  knowledge  and  education  gives  them  thus  into  their 
own  hands  the  means  to  earn  a  living.    ,, 


CHAPTER   LI. 

Great  Men  Who  Were  Sickly  Children — Longevity 
OF  Great   Men. 

When  we  study  the  biographies  of  great  men  it  must 
appear  to  us  remarkable  how  often  it  is  related  that  such  men 
were  weak  and  sickly  during  childhood.  It  is  not  impossible 
that  there  exists  some  connection  between  that  condition  and 
the  development  into  a  great  man  later.  It  is,  first  of  all,  cer- 
tain that  if  a  child  has  no  opportunity  to  play  it  would,  if  it  is 
intelligent,  feel  wearisome  and  long  for  some  occupation;  and 
such  a  sickly  condition,  particularly  of  the  nervous  system,  not 
rarely  occurs  just  in  early  matured  and  intelligent  children. 
Such  children,  indeed,  come  not  rarely  from  families  in  which 
nervous  and  mental  diseases  are  common,  or  where  there  are 
some  other  certain  diseases  closely  connected  with  the  nervous 
system,  such  as  diabetes,  for  example.  Diabetics  very  often 
have  nervous,  early  matured  children.^ 

Now,  if  such  an  early  matured  and  sickly  child  is  compelled 
to  spend  the  whole  day  indoors,  it  is  quite  natural  that  it  will 
do  much  reading,  or  if  it  is  of  a  thoughtful  nature,  it  will  think 
over  various  things,  even  if  only  for  the  purpose  of  passing  time. 
James  Watt,  the  great  inventor,  was  sickly  when  a  child ;  he  was 
compelled  to  stay  at  home,  and  was  reading  all  day.  Albrecht 
von  Haller  was  also  a  very  delicate  child,  and  was  diligently 
gathering  all  kinds  of  knowledge.  The  same  with  Descartes, 
who  had  to  stay  in  bed  until  ii  o'clock,  during  which  he  used 
to  think  over  philosophical  problems.  Blaise  Pascal  suffered 
from  infantile  paralysis,  and  thus  had  the  leisure  to  occupy  him- 
self with  philosophy  and  mathematics.  Particularly  among  the 
great  thinkers  and  philosophers  we  find  that  they  were  of  deli- 


lA.  Lorand,  The  Practitioner.    London,  October,  1905, 

(393) 


394  Human  Intelligence. 


cate  health  during  childhood.  So,  for  instance,  was  Kant  a 
weak  child;  also  Locke,  Francis  Bacon,  Newton,  Pope,  Bent- 
ham,  and  many  others.  Helmholtz  was  a  sickly  child  with 
dropsy  of  the  brain;  Rousseau's  birth  cost  his  mother's  life.  In 
many  of  those  great  philosophers  the  parents  were  even  doubt- 
ful whether  they  would  be  able  to  bring  up  these  delicate  off- 
spring. Kant  said  about  himself  that  throughout  all  his  life  he 
was  neither  sick  nor  well.  He  always  had  stomach  or  intestinal 
complaints.  Rousseau  was  always  somewhat  sickly,  and  was 
always  afraid  of  death.  Voltaire  always  had  gall  complaints. 
Among  the  thinkers  and  great  scientists  we  find  very  many  who 
attained  a  very  old  age,  and  some  of  them,  notwithstanding  their 
sickly,  weak  disposition;  this  was  the  case  with  Kant,  Newton, 
James  Watt,  Bacon,  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  and  many  others. 
I  am  inclined  to  attribute  this  to  their  great  intelligence,  because 
the  latter  enabled  them  to  take  better  care  of  themselves.  The 
intelligent  individual  notices  at  once  the  slightest  deviation  from 
normal,  the  first  indications  of  an  approaching  disease,  and  can 
take  precautions  against  it,  and  at  once  seek  medical  aid;  his 
intelligence  also  induces  him  to  moderation.  Children  of  alco- 
holics, on  the  other  hand,  will,  in  most  instances,  also  become 
drinkers,  because  the  often  simultaneously  existing  low  mental- 
ity will  unfortunately  not  keep  them  away  from  it.  In  the  life 
of  great  thinkers  we  find  very  often  as  characteristic  a  well- 
regulated  mode  of  living  with  great  moderation.  As  an  example 
I  may  again  mention  Kant,  who,  notwithstanding  his  delicate 
health,  reached  the  age  of  80,  thanks  only  to  his  frugal  mode!  of 
living.  Kant  used  to  get  up  regularly  at  5  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing, summer  and  winter,  and,  as  is  related  by  his  attendant 
Lampe,  in  the  course  of  thirty  years,  he  did  not  miss  once  to 
answer  his  call  to  get  up  in  the  morning.  His  diet  was  also  a 
very  plain  one,  as  is  becoming  to  such  a  great  and  critical 
thinker,  who  wrote  the  "Criticism  of  the  Pure  Mind."  I  have 
mentioned  before  that  for  the  mental  worker  who  needs  for  his 
work  much  creative  phantasia,  a  rich  meat  diet  is  the  most 


Longevity  of  Great  Men.  395 

appropriate,  and,  in  fact,  we  see  that  the  elder  Dumas,  Victor 
Hugo,  and  others  were  great  meat  eaters. 

Contrary  to  this,  we  see  that  in  occupations  where  cold, 
sober  criticism  and  a  keen  mind  constitute  the  most  important 
requisites,  as,  for  instance,  in  mathematicians,  these  men  lived  in 
moderation,  and  used  a  very  plain  diet.  Moebius^  said:  "A 
meager  diet  is  apparently  not  injurious  to  mathematics,  because 
many  prominent  mathematicians  have  been  starving."  The 
mathematician  Kastner  said :  "I  am  not  afraid  of  any  siege,  as 
I  have  learned  in  Leipzig  how  to  starve."  Moebius  also  points 
out  that  all  mathematicians  have  lived  in  moderation,  and  have 
attained  an  age  above  the  average.  In  regard  to  the  longevity 
of  great  minds,  we  actually  find  that  the  great  thinkers,  phi- 
losophers, mathematicians  and  great  scientists,  undoubtedly  due 
to  their,  in  general,  rational  mode  of  living,  have  attained  a  high 
old  age.  Alexander  von  Humboldt  reached  the  age  of  90,  Kant 
was  80,  Newton  84  years,  Locke  71  years,  Helmholtz  73  years, 
Herschel  84  years,  Euler  y6  years,  Galileo  79  years,  the  great 
mathematician  Gauss  78  years,  Laplace  78  years,  Monge  y2 
years. 

Only  seldom  do  we  see  very  short  life  mentioned,  as,  for 
instance,  in  regard  to  Pascal,  who  died  at  the  age  of  29  years. 
He,  however,  suffered  from  a  very  serious  nervous  disease  all 
his  life,  and  was  much  inclined  toward  mysticism — he  even 
became  the  follower  of  the  heretic  bishop,  Jansen — and  later 
became  actually  insane.  Spinoza  did  not  reach  even  50  years  of 
age;  he  overworked  himself,  and  at  the  same  time  so  insuffi- 
ciently fed  himself  that  he  lived  some  days  only  on  milk,  soup 
and  bread,  and  spent  only  about  7  cents  a  day;  no  wonder  that 
he  acquired  a  chest  trouble.  Descartes,  after  quite  an  adven- 
turous life,  reached  only  54  years.  His  end  was  surely  hastened 
by  the  tutoring  of  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden,  which  had  to  be 
done  in  the  wnnter  at  5  o'clock  in  the  morning  in  the  unheated 
library.     The   adventurousness   of   his   disposition   is   apparent 

2  Moebius,  Die  Anlage  zur  Mathematik,  S.  121. 


396  Human  Intelligence. 


from  the  fact  that,  though  having  a  yearly  income  of  6000  francs, 
a  very  great  sum  at  that  time,  he  enhsted  as  a  plain  soldier  in  the 
service  of  Prince  Moritz  of  Orange.  With  these  few  excep- 
tions, other  great  scientists  have  mostly  reached  old  age.  This 
cannot  be  said,  unfortunately,  in  general  about  the  geniuses 
which  work  with  phantasia  (imagination).  Particularly  not 
about  composers;  for  instance,  Mozart  was  very  young  when 
placed  in  his  beggarly  grave,  which  was  in  no  proportion  at  all 
to  the  brilliant  entertainments  given  in  his  honor.  Only  very 
few  followed  his  funeral.  He  dug,  however,  his  early  grave 
himself  by  his  immoderate  life,  and  much  were  his  parents  at 
fault,  because  they  allowed  him,  as  a  sickly  child,  to  travel 
throughout  half  of  Europe  during  the  winter.  Having  been 
rocked  on  the  lap  of  an  Empress  as  a  child,  he,  not  quite  30 
years  of  age,  received  a  pauper's  grave.  So  many  of  these  great 
geniuses,  as  if  consumed  by  an  inner  fire,  have  lived  without 
taking  any  consideration  of  the  hygienic  requirements  of  the 
body,  and  without  sparing  themselves.  Particularly  have  they 
not  spared  themselves  during  their  mental  work,  but  exposed 
themselves  to  overstrain  and  overexertion.  In  view  of  the  fact 
that  very  many  geniuses  as  children  have  been  afflicted  with 
nervous  disorders,  as  Schopenhauer  for  example,  it  is  no  won- 
der that  they  have  manifested  later  mental  disturbances.  Very 
often  are  found  also  symptoms  of  arteriosclerotic  changes  of  the 
brain-vessels  as  a  result  of  overstrain,  of  an  early  consumption. 
The  longevity  of  those  scientists  who  attained  old  age  would 
probably  have  been  still  greater  if  they  had  not  acquired  arterio- 
sclerosis through  overwork.  This  was  generally  of  frequent 
occurrence  among  them,  and  is  probably  the  reason  why  not 
rarely  in  their  old  age  they  showed  some  manifestations  of 
beginning  mental  decline,  as,  for  instance,  Kant,  Monge,  Ampere, 
Newton,  Huygens,  and  others.  Kant  had  symptoms  indicating 
intermittent  lameness,  and  had  a  paralytic  stroke  shortly  before 
he  died.  Linne,  Copernicus,  Helmholtz,  Faraday,  Davy,  and 
very  many  other  scientists  had  a  paralytic  stroke,  and  the  death 


Longevity  of  Great  Men.  297 

of  Euler  also  suggests  arteriosclerosis.  The  great  Hungarian 
mathematician  Bolyai  died  from  a  stroke;  Robert  Koch  died 
from  arteriosclerosis.  When  we,  however,  take  into  considera- 
tion that  Francis  Bacon,  Kant,  Locke,  Newton,  Haller,  James 
Watt,  Humboldt  (who  became  90  years  old),  and  others  have 
been  weak  and  sickly  children,  the  fact  that  they  reached  such  a 
respectable  age  must  alone  be  attributed  to  their  moderate  frugal 
mode  of  life. 


CHAPTER   LII. 

Great   Men   Who    Were    Eager    Readers   in    Child- 
hood— The  Advantage  of  ]\Iuch  Reading,  and 
OF   Diligent,    Private    Studying. 

Any  physician  who  has  the  intention  of  having  his  son  fol- 
low the  same  vocation,  and  would  make  of  him  a  capable  phy- 
sician, should  give  the  boy,  first,  a  beautifully  illustrated  zoolog- 
ical work  written  somewhat  in  the  style  of  Brehm's  ''Animal 
Life."  After  that  he  should  give  him  an  interestingly  written 
book  on  zoology,  in  which  the  anatomical  parts  are  also  presented 
with  pretty  illustrations.  Following  this,  he  should  give  him  a 
botany  with  good  illustrations,  in  which  the  practical  value  of  the 
plants  and  their  medicinal  qualities  are  pointed  out.  If  thus  in 
the  boy  be  awakened  pleasure  in  animals  and  plants — in  regard  to 
minerals  the  same  could  be  done — he  would  surely  then  enjoy 
strolling  around  in  the  open  country,  in  the  woods  and  the  field, 
making  his  own  observations.  In  this  way  he  would  sharpen  his 
eyes ;  he  would  learn  to  see  everything  and  note  it,  and  such  acute 
observ^ations  would  be  the  best  foundation  for  making  of  him 
a  capable  physician.  Further  on,  thanks  to  his  awakened  love 
for  nature,  he  would  follow  up  with  interest  other  branches  of 
the  natural  sciences,  physics,  and  chemistry;  and  this  could  be 
encouraged  by  putting  at  his  disposal  well  and  clearly  written — 
not  in  the  dry  teaching  style — books  on  physics  and  chemistry. 
If  he  sees  in  addition,  in  school,  experiments  with  various  chem- 
ical substances,  he  will,  conforming  with  the  taste  of  youth,  read 
at  home  with  still  more  pleasure,  not  in  his  short  textbooks,  but 
in  popular  works  written  with  greater  interest  and  supplied  with 
beautiful  illustrations. 

Such  private  reading,  such  private  diligence,  which  is  worth 
gold,  should  be  encouraged  by  all  possible  means,  because,  as  the 
examples  of  many  great  men  show,  they  have  been  eager  readers 
(398) 


Great  Men  JJlio  Were  Eager  Readers  399 

during  their  childhood.  Albrecht  von  Haller  began  as  a  child  to 
study  grammars  of  various  foreign  languages,  even  the  Chal- 
dean, spending  the  whole  day  in  reading,  which  he  was,  by  the 
way,  compelled  to  do  on  account  of  his  delicate  health.  The 
great  physicist  and  mathematician  Ampere  was,  as  Moebius 
said:  "A  vulture  in  reading"  (lesegeier),  who  read  through  all 
the  twenty  volumes  of  an  encyclopedia,  which  fell  into  his  hands, 
one  volume  after  another.  At  the  age  of  14  he  received  from  a 
bookseller  the  works  of  the  great  mathematicians  Bernouilli  and 
Euler.  When  he  was  told  that  the  books  were  written  in  Latin, 
he  learned  Latin  for  the  purpose,  and  then  studied  the  books. 
This  child  was,  moreover,  so  gifted  for  mathematics  that  even 
before  he  knew  the  numbers  he  was  figuring  with  little  pebbles 
and  beans.  And  when  once  he  was  sick,  and  after  three  days 
fasting  received  a  piece  of  zwieback,  he  did  not  eat  it,  but  broke 
it  and  used  the  pieces  for  figuring.  Even  in  his  boyhood  days 
Francis  Bacon  read  philosophical  treatises,  and  already  then 
showed  an  aversion  toward  Aristotle,  on  account  of  "the  un- 
fruitfulness  of  his  ways."  How  smart  the  child  was  is  shown 
by  the  answer  he  once  gave  to  the  queen;  when  she  asked  him 
how  old  he  was,  he  answered :  "Only  two  years  less  than  the 
happy  reign  of  Your  Majesty." 

Pascal  engaged  himself  with  mathematical  problems  as  a 
child,  and  at  the  age  of  14  he  published  his  paper  about  the 
conic  sections.  Abraham  Lincoln,  also  as  a  boy,  was  so  eager 
to  read  that  he  borrowed  all  sorts  of  books  from  the  farmers  in 
the  neighborhood,  and  read  them  all  da}^  I  am  inclined  to 
attribute  to'  this  private  reading  of  a  child  great  importance  for 
his  future  life,  of  course,  only  when  useful  books  are  read  and 
not  backstairs  novels.  The  latter,  as  well  as  robber  novels,  may 
often  do  great  damage  to  children  with  their  undeveloped  experi- 
ence and  judgment.  They  can  even  be  the  cause  of  crimes  in 
minors,  or  even  induce  them  to  leave  their  parents'  home  for 
adventures,  and  imitate  the  life  of  Robinson  Crusoe  in  some 
distant  parts  of  the  world. 


400  Human  Intelligence. 


When  a  child  shows  such  a  craving  for  reading — usually 
they  are  intelligent  or  early  matured  children — we  must  consider 
it  as  a  manifestation  of  nature,  as  a  kind  of  instinct  driving 
them  to  gather  experience  about  this  world.  We  must,  then, 
direct  this  passion  into  the  right  channels,  and  as  much  as  pos- 
sible encourage  them;  of  course,  without  doing  harm  to  the 
development  of  the  body.  It  is  very  important  that  only  good 
books  should  be  given  into  the  hands  of  children,  preferably  such 
where  useful  knowledge  is  presented  in  narrative  form.  The 
selection  of  the  subject  is  best  made  according  to  the  congenital 
inclinations  of  the  children,  or  the  educational  purpose  set  in 
view.  At  any  rate,  a  congenital  inclination  for  a  certain  sub- 
ject should  be  encouraged  by  all  means,  and  particularly  private 
reading  of  valuable  books  in  the  direction  of  their  inclination. 
The  present-day  school,  with  its  levelling  of  everything  to  one 
pattern  idea,  is  averse  to  such  one-sided  inclinations  and  abilities, 
even  killing  all  originality,  and  so  appeal  must  be  taken  to  the 
private  diligence  of  such  children.  Of  course,  it  may  then  hap- 
pen that  by  giving  themselves  up  entirely  to  such  studies  the  sub- 
jects taken  up  in  school  are  neglected,  and  then  talented  children 
make  bad  pupils.  This  has,  however,  very  little  to  do  with  their 
future  position  in  life.  Indeed,  it  can  be  observed  often  enough, 
and  I  saw  it  in  my  classmates,  that  those  who  have  been  hardest 
pluggers  in  school  occupy  only  a  very  moderate  position  in  life, 
and  the  so-called  bad  pupils  attain  the  highest  positions  or 
become  distinguished  men,  and  this  not  because  of  the  school 
instruction  which  they  had  received,  but  due  to  the  privately  pur- 
sued studies.  In  school  they  were  bad  pupils  because  they  had 
to  learn  there,  by  compulsion,  subjects  which  they  did  not  like, 
but  when  out  of  school  they  could  devote  themselves  to  studying 
subjects  which  they  preferred,  and  liave  accomplished  great 
things.  This  private  application,  perfecting  congenital  abilities 
through  much  reading,  observation  and  exercise,  I  consider  as 
the  surest  road  to  future  greatness.  What  was  acquired  by  pri- 
vate studying  I  rate  much  higher  than  what  \yas  learned  by  more 


Great  Men  Who  Were  Eager  Readers.  401 

or  less  compulsion.  If  anyone  gets  continually  deeper  into  the 
same  subject,  he  very  soon  finds  in  it  something  new  every  day 
which  remained  unnoticed  to  other  investigators,  and  thus  the 
way  becomes  paved  for  important  discoveries  and  inventions. 
Such  strong  private  diligence  and  private  study — wherein  all 
compulsion  is  gone — has  led  many  a  poor  boy  to  highest  posi- 
tions, for  example,  Gottlob  Nathusius,  once  a  poor  errand-boy, 
became  a  millionaire,  and  one  of  the  greatest  merchants  in  Ger- 
many. As  he  had  no  means  to  buy  books  for  himself,  he  saved 
every  piece  of  waste-paper  whereon  was  printed  an  article  on 
commerce  and  industry  to  read  them  over  during  the  earliest 
morning  hours.  The  love  for  reading  induced  him  to  use  all  the 
money  he  could  spare  from  his  meagre  wages  in  buying  valuable 
books,  for  instance,  the  works  of  Adam  Smith  ''On  the  Nature 
and  Cause  of  National  Wealth,"  which  he  read  through  so  often 
that  he  knew  it  by  heart.  His  knowledge  acquired  in  this  fash- 
ion has  then  brought  him  forward.  The  great  physicist  Faraday 
became  a  bookbinder  apprentice  only  to  satisfy  his  desire  for 
reading.  Rousseau,  even  as  a  small  boy,  swallowed  all  kinds  of 
books  which  got  into  his  hands :  novels,  also  Virgil,  Horace, 
books  on  astronomy,  etc.  Helmholtz,  as  a  boy,  read  with  passion 
all  books  on  physics  which  he  found  in  his  father's  library. 
Liebig,  again,  read  as  a  boy  all  books  on  chemistry  which  he 
could  find  in  the  court  library.  Humphry  Davy,  when  a  boy, 
also  read  everything  that  fell  intO'  his  hands.  The  future  course 
of  development  of  these  great  men  was  undoubtedly  very  favor- 
ably influenced  by  the  diligently  pursued  private  reading.  Leib- 
nitz had,  as  a  child,  a  great  desire  for  reading,  and  so  his  father 
opened  his  library  for  him,  and  said,  "Tolle,  lege."  Also  when 
an  old  man  he  was  so  very  eager  to  read  that  he  hardly  got  up 
from  his  seat  for  days. 

A  similar  example  of  a  ravenous  desire  for  reading  was 
also  presented  by  the  distinguished  optician,  Frauenhofer,  who 
served  as  an  apprentice  to  a  hard-hearted  master  who  pro- 
hibited him  reading.     He  was  mostly  compelled  to  go  outside 

20 


402  Human  Intelligence. 


of  the  city  limits  to  be  able  to  read  undisturbed.  The  great 
mathematician  Fourier,  who,  as  a  son  of  a  poor  tailor,  was 
brought  to  the  school  of  the  Benedictines  by  a  bishop,  remained 
up  whole  nights  to  study  by  the  light  of  small  candle  stumps 
which  he  collected  in  the  kitchen  and  the  passageways  of  the 
college.  The  great  physicist  Arago,  from  whose  speech  deliv- 
ered in  memory  of  Fourier  the  above  data  are  taken,  is  the 
instructive  example  of  the  success  of  private  diligent  study  and 
ravenous  desire  for  reading.  He  was  such  a  bad  pupil  that  he 
was  hardly  able  to  read  properly  at  the  age  12  years.  Then  a 
lieutenant  awakened  in  him  the  desire  for  mathematics  by  tell- 
ing him  that  with  the  knowledge  of  it  he  could  enter  the  school 
of  pol5d:echnics.  He  then  had  sent  to  him  mathematical  books 
from  Paris,  and  thus  studied  alone  the  analysis  of  the  infinite  by 
Euler,  the  Mecanique  Celeste,  by  Laplace,  etc.  When  he,  at  the 
age  of  14  years,  was  examined  by  Monge  for  entrance  into  the 
school,  the  latter  was  struck  by  the  wide  mathematical  knowl- 
edge of  the  boy.  From  the  example  of  Arago,  and  from  my 
ownj  experience  as  well,  I  draw  the  conclusion  that  what  a  man 
knows  really  well  is  mostly  not  what  he  learned  in  school,  but 
by  his  own  diligent  private  study,  I  look  upon  the  object  of 
school  to  be  mainly  not  so  much  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  as 
the  instruction  in  the  ways  and  means  as  to  how  the  knowledge 
can  be  acquired  by  private  studying.  It  should  encourage  private 
home  study  without  compulsion.  A  bo}^  learns  something  much 
more  willingly  when  it  is  not  done  by  compulsion,  but  when 
impelled  to  it  by  his  own  inclination.  Those  parents  may  be  con- 
sidered lucky  whose  children  have  such  a  desire  for  reading;  of 
course,  only  if  it  is  directed  into  the  proper  channels.  Reading 
without  selection  should  not  be  permitted,  because  this  may  lead 
to  overexertion,  and  do  rather  harm.  Only  that  should  be  read 
which  is  of  value  and  can  bd  used ;  and,  first  of  all,  it  should  be 
read  critically.  Corresponding  with  the  grade  of  their  intelli- 
gence, readers  will  proceed  differently.  The  intelligent  would 
overlook  what  is  evidently  false  and  untrue,  and  would  not  over- 


'  Great  Men  Who  Were  Eager  Readers.  403 

burden  his  memory  with  it,  whereas  the  stupid  would  harm  him- 
self by  much  reading  without  judgment.  Just  as  little  as  the 
dull  may  be  made  wiser  by  teaching  can  he  be  made  so  by  much 
reading.  Moreover,  it  can  be  very  often  observed  that  only 
intelligent  children  and  adults  manifest  a  desire  for  reading  use- 
ful books.  By  extensive  reading  a  man  can  enrich  his  knowl- 
edge ;  and,  if  it  is  carried  on  in  a  rational  wa}'',  also  'his  store  of 
experience,  and  thus,  the  same  as  with  learning,  increase  his 
ability  of  judgment,  because  much  reading  means  much  learn- 
ing. Descartes^  said  that  study  should  be  for  the  purpose  of 
being  able  to  judge  better.  Just  as  what  was  studied,  so  also 
what  is  read,  can  be  retained  best  if,  as  Albrecht  von  Haller  did, 
one  reads  always  with  the  pencil  in  his  hand  and  continually 
makes  notes.  Plinius,  senior,  was  a  great  reader,  or,  more  prop- 
erly speaking,  he  had  somebody  reading  to  him  all  the  time, 
whether  he  was  eating  or  taking  a  walk.  At  the  same  time  he 
had  a  secretary  with  him  whose  duty  it  was  to  make  extracts 
for  him.  A  more  ardent  reader  and  student  than  the  great 
Albrecht  von  Haller  has  hardly  ever  existed.  He  was  reading 
while  on  the  street,  at  the  table,  and  even  on  horseback.  His 
knowledge  was  astonishing,  and  it  also  was  many-sided,  just  as 
we  admire  it  in  other  great  old  masters,  such  as  Erasmus  of  Rot- 
terdam, Boerhaave,  Swammerdam,  in  contrast  with  frequently 
one-sided,  dry  scientists  of  the  present  day.  He  was  not  only  a 
great  naturalist,  but  also  a  poet  and  historical  writer;  and, 
besides  that,  also  a  kind  of  Mezzofanti.  While  he  was  making 
a  post-mortem  examination  he  learned  from  a  Swedish  hearer 
the  principally  used  Swedish  expressions.  He  asked  him  the 
meaning  of  the  different  words,  and  thus,  after  a  short  time,  he 
was  able  to  speak  Swedish ! 

The  old  great  masters  were,  in  general,  exceedingly  well 
read  and  of  such  many-sidedness  that  they  could  put  many  of 
our  present  scientists  in  the  shade.  Boerhaave  was  not  only  a 
great  physician,  but  also  at  home  in  philosophy,  in  the  various 

1  Descartes,  oeuvres  xi,  S.  130. 


404  Human  Intelligence. 


dead  languages,  in  Chaldean,  and  in  Hebrew.  He  also  deliv- 
ered lectures  in  mathematics  and  in  philosophy.  Pascal  was  a 
mathematician,  a  physicist,  a  philosopher,  and  a  writer.  His 
"Lettres  Provinciales"  passed  through  sixty  editions.  Kant  was 
very  efficient  in  astronomy  and  mathematics,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  one  of  the  greatest  philosophers  in  the  world.  Most-sided, 
however,  was  Swedenborg,  whom  we  have  already  mentioned. 
Besides  his  medical  publications,  which  some  years  ago  were 
recommended  by  Professor  Neuberg  in  Vienna,  and  in  which 
were  expressed  views  which  have  now  been  confirmed,  he  was 
editor  of  the  first  journal  on  natural  history  in  Sweden,  of  the 
"Daedalus  Hyperboreus,"  and  regular  assessor  of  the  Swedish 
Miners'  College.  By  a  number  of  publications  he  has  proven 
to  be  a  genius  in  the  domain  of  mathematics,  astronom.y, 
geology,  mineralogy,  metallurgy;  and  his  cosmological  publica- 
tions made  great  impression,  and  have  shown  him  to  us  as  a 
forerunner  of  many  great  discoveries.  He  also  published  great 
medical  and  theological  books.  He  was  also  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Royal  Scientific  Society  in  Upsala.  At  that  time  many 
distinguished  theologians  and  philosophers  were  also  studying 
medicine.  Bossuet,  the  distinguished  preacher,  described  the 
stomach- juice  as*  a  very  sharp-tasted  watery  substance  which  so 
cuts  the  meat  apart  that  it  entirely  loses  its  original  form.  He 
called  the  arteries  the  peripheral  hearts,  and  foresaw  the  life 
doctrine  of  Flourens  long  before  him.  Descartes  also  diligently 
pursued  anatomical  studies  in  Port  Royal  to  find  the  seat  of  the 
soul,  and  was  recklessly  cutting  into  living  animals,  as,  accord- 
ing to  his  philosophy,  animals  have  no  soul,  therefore  present 
only  dead  matter,  and  consequently  cannot  feel. 

Such  stupendous  many-sidedness  would  be  indeed  an  ex- 
ceedingly rare  occurrence  in  our  days.  We  must  not  forget, 
however,  that  the  general  enormous  increase  in»  our  knowledge 
in  all  domains  makes  it,  in  comparison  with  former  times,  very 
difficult  to  acquire  universal  knowledge.  Many-sidedness  is,  any- 
how, a  qualification  which  is  only  seen  in  geniuses,  as  in  Goethe, 


Great  Men  Who  Were  Eager  Readers.  405 

for  instance;  and  in  such  geniuses  our  century  is  lacking.  The 
eight  to  nine  years  of  study  in  a  school  takes  away  too  much 
energy  and  leaves  no  time  free  for  ardent  manifestations 
and  continuous  practice  of  ingenious  dispositions,  which  is  the 
only  way  possible  to  accomplish  something  really  great.  It  is, 
therefore,  no  wonder  that  there  were  great  classics  and  geniuses 
only  until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  the 
introduction  of  the  college  and  school  examinations  began  to 
show  their  fatal  effect.  Nowadays  we  live  more  in  the  age  of 
one-sidedness.  A  scientist,  for  instance,  becomes  absorbed  in 
metabolism  work  of  a  certain  branch,  and  he.  cultivates  that  until 
his  death;  everything  else  leaves  him  entirely  uninterested; 
besides  he  would  never  have  the  time  for  anything  else,  even  if 
he  wished  it.  Until  first  youth  is  nearly  over,  one  is  engaged 
nowadays  in  compulsory  studying  for  the  sake  of  getting  some 
position,  and  only  then  does  it  become  possible  to  devote  one's 
self  to  studies  of  inclination.  And  just  such  studies  that  a  man 
pursues  with  pleasure  are  those  which  may  lead  him  to  some- 
thing great.  If  a  father  wants  to  make  of  his  son  a  distinguished 
man  he  can  best  accomplish  that  by  arranging  so  that  his  boy  may 
learn  everything  with  pleasure,  and  then  devote  himself  with 
pleasure  tO'  those  subjects  which  are  connected  with  his  career. 
If,  however,  he  takes  up  a  vocation  by  compulsion,  he  will 
never  show  any  diligence  privately,  and  will  never  accomplish 
anything  of  importance.     He  will  only  be  a  man  of  mediocrity. 


CHAPTER    LIII. 
Great   Men   Who   Were   Bad    Pupils. 

The  great  Orientalist  Klapproth  was  a  bad  pupil.  When 
he  failed  in  examination,  the  professor  said  to  him :  "You  know 
absolutely  nothing."  And  his  answer  was:  "Not  quite;  I  know 
Chinese."  This  was  investigated,  and  it  was  actually  found  that 
he  had  learned  that  difficult  language  by  his  own  effort.  We 
indeed  observe  that  children,  and  also  young  men  who  can  fol- 
low up,  by  their  own  inclination,  a  subject  for  which  they  have 
a  special  desire  and  love,  may  accomplish  very  great  results  in 
it;  even  become  great  men  in  this  way.  The  secret  for  cultivat- 
ing great  men,  therefore,  would  consist  in  developing  the  con- 
genital faculties  in  children,  and  then  by  all  means  encourage 
them  in  that  direction.  We  observe,  however,  that  instead  of 
following  this  method,  irrational  parents,  and  very  often  also 
the  school-teacher,  take  the  greatest  pains  to  kill  such  talents  at 
the  start.  We  see  this,  for  instance,  in  the  life  history  of  Michel 
Angelo,  whose  proud,  noble  father  wanted  to  compel  him,  even 
by  physical  punishment,  to  relinquish  his  inclination  for  model- 
ling figures.  Pascal's  father  hid  away  from  his  son  all  geomet- 
rical figures,  but  at  the  early  age  of  lo  he  had  drawn  with 
charcoal  all  kinds  of  such  figures  on  the  floor  of  his  room. 
Handel,  when  a  child,  could  play  only  secretly  because  of  his 
father's  prohibition.  Galilei,  against  his  wish,  was  forced  by 
his  father  to  become  a  physician.  During  lectures,  however,  he 
studied  the  mathematical  works  of  Euclid  or  Archimedes  instead 
of  the  works  of  Galen.  Helmholtz  during  the  Latin  hours 
figured  out,  under  the  bench,  the  passage  of  an  optical  pencil  of 
rays  through  a  lens.^  He  was  just  as  bad  a  pupil  in  the  dead 
languages  as  Liebig,  who  was  really  "a  disgrace  to  the  school." 


1  W.  Ostwald,  Grosse  Manner,  II  Auflage.    Leipzig,  1910. 
(406) 


Great  Men  as  Bad  Pupils.  407 

Robert  Mayer  was  a  very  bad  pupil  (particularly  in  Latin),  and 
Humphry  Davy  could  not  manage  to  pronounce  French.  That 
such  pupils  were  distracted  by  their  preference  for  other  sub- 
jects, and  did  not  follow  the  lessons,  is  quite  natural;  they 
became  absent-minded,  did  not  take  notice,  and  thus,  although 
otherwise  very  talented  children,  became  bad  pupils.  Newton 
was  a  very  bad  pupil ;  instead  of  doing  his  home  work  he  used 
all  his  free  time  for  making  mechanical  instruments,  and  he 
became  a  real  master  in  this.  Tyge  Brahe,  the  son  of  a  Danish 
noble  family,  was  supposed  to  study  jurisprudence  in  Copen- 
hagen; when,  however,  in  August,  i860,  he  saw  a  sun  eclipse,  it 
made  such  an  impression  upon  him  that  he  studied  astronomy 
secretly.  His  tutor  hindered  him  during  the  day,  so  he  remained 
up  at  nights  to.  study  the  sky.  He  naturally  became  a  bad  law- 
yer, and  so  the  family  decided  to  let  the  boy  follow  his  inclina- 
tions and  sent  him  to  Augsburg*  to  study  further.  Often  talents 
become  manifest  in  children  by  some  accidental  event,  which 
awakens  in  them  a  great  desire  for  something.  All  children,  as 
true  egoists,  do  preferably  what  they  have  a  fancy  for,  or  what 
stimulates  in  the  highest  degree  their  curiosity  and  their  interest. 
The  distinguished  mathematician  Sophie  Kowalewska,  when  a 
child,  often  heard  her  uncle  talk  about  the  beauties  of  the  study 
of  mathematics.  This  awoke  in  her,  as  she  herself  relates,  love 
for  mathematics.^  It  also  made  a  deep  impression  upon  the 
child  that  the  children's  room  was  papered  with  notes  on  differ- 
ential and  integral  calculations  from  the  lectures  by  Ostogradki, 
which  her  father,  who  was  a  general  of  the  artillery,  had 
attended.  These  walls,  covered  with  mysterious  figures,  very 
much  excited  her  curiosity,  and  she  often  thought  of  their  sig- 
nificance. I  am  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  possible  in  this  way 
very  often  to  cultivate  intentionally  in  children  an  inclination 
for  certain  subjects  and  great  faculties.  It  is  necessary,  when 
so  doing,  to  study  their  special  dispositions  and  correspondingly 
give  them  practical  exercises  for  their  senses  by  showing  them 

2  MoebiuSj  Die  Anla^e  zur  Mathematik,  S.  88. 


408  Human  Intelligence. 


various  kinds  of  pictures  and  figures^  or  by  giving  them  various 
kinds  of  sensibly  constructed  toys.  After  discovering  such 
much-promising  inclination,  nothing  else  remains  to  be  done  but 
to  allow  its  free  development.  If  a  child  only  has  intact  sensory 
organs,  and  these  are  sharpened  by  exercise,  and  the  child  thinks 
correctly — in  so  far  as  children  are  able  to  think — it  is  possible, 
in  my  opinion,  to  make  anything  of  the  child,  within  certain 
limitations,  of  course,  offered  by  its  congenital  disposition.  By 
testing  the  various  senses  it  should  be  established  which  of  the 
senses  is  least  developed,  and  according  to  that  select  the  plays, 
pictures,  etc.,  which  are  given  to  the  children  to  play  with  so  as 
to  unfold  those  senses.  The  sharpening  of  the  senses  in  children 
should,  in  general,  he  the  main  care  of  education.  Sometimes 
by  accident — and  these  could  be  intentionally  produced  in  the 
interest  of  the  child's  education — great  inclinations  and  faculties 
may  become  unfolded  in  children  as  well  as  in  adults. 

Cuvier  was  once,  as  a  badly  paid  private  tutor,  taking  a 
walk  at  the  seashore  in  Normandy.  The  breakers  threw  out  a 
cuttlefish  on  the  beach  before  him,  and  this  excited  his  curiosity. 
He  took  the  cuttlefish  along  with  him,  and  studied  it  carefully 
at  home.  This  awakened  in  him  interest  in  mollusks,  and  then  in 
all  other  animals,  and  he  became  one  of  the  foremost  naturalists. 

I  experienced  something  similar  myself.  In  1878  there 
came  into  my  home  town,  Nagy-Kanizsa  in  Hungary,  a  com- 
mittee of  Turkish  students — they  made  a  round  trip  through 
Hungary — and  in  the  streets  were  heard  hurrah  cries  in  Turkish, 
"Csok  Jasa."  I  heard,  as  a  small  boy,  these  exclamations,  which 
very  much  excited  my  curiosity,  and  so  I  bought  from  my 
meagre  spending  money  the  Turkish  grammar  by  Erody  and 
learned  Turkish.  Because  I  stayed  up  with  it  half  the  night, 
however, — everything  that  I  undertook  with  desire  and  interest 
I  have  always  done  with  great  diligence, — I  neglected  the  school 
subjects  which  did  not  interest  me,  and  when  my  mother  found 
me  twice  at  2  o'clock  in  the  morning  studying  Turkish,  she  took 
the  grammar  and  hid  it  away.    \A^hen  I  found  it  again  and  was 


Great  Men  as  Bad  Pupils.  409 

studying  again,  she  burned  it.  I  then  acquired  a  Spanish  gram- 
mar and  studied  Spanish ;  then  I  bought  a  Russian  grammar  and 
studied  Russian,  and  thus,  notwithstanding  all  the  whippings  I 
received,  I  learned  simultaneously  several  languages.  Of  course, 
my  parents  did  not  anticipate  at  that  time  how  useful  this 
knowledge  of  languages  would  be  for  me  in  my  future  profes- 
sional calling  and  in  travelling. 

When  the  love  for  the  languages  of  foreign  nations  is 
awakened  in  the  child,  it  is  very  easy  to  get  it  interested  also  in 
the  habits  and  customs  of  those  nations,  in  the  geographical  con- 
ditions of  the  countries  where  they  live  and  in  their  history. 
Intelligent  children  will  surely  wish  to  read  diligently  all  pos- 
sible books  about  these  countries.  And  what  a  boy  does  by 
private  diligence,  he  always  notices,  and  much  more  easily 
remembers  than  what  he  has  to  learn  by  bitter  compulsion.  If, 
therefore,  intelligent,  early  matured  children  have  an  inner 
longing  for  much  reading,  it  is  possible  very  easily  to  have  them 
acquire  useful  knowledge  by  leading  them  in  the  proper  direc- 
tion, and  this  may  also  lay  a  foundation  for  future  greatness. 
This  was  the  case  with  many  great  men,  such  as  Ampere,  Goethe, 
Kant,  Rousseau,  Leibnitz,  James  Watt,  Faraday,  Humphry 
Davy,  and  many  others.  It  is  also  necessary  to  endeavor  to  put 
in  their  way  intentionally  such  opportunities  as  the  cuttlefish  in 
•the  case  of  Cuvier.  In  the  education  of  such  early  matured  chil- 
dren, however,  who  are,  as  a  rule,  nervous,  and  are  not  rarely 
coming  from  families  in  which  nervous  and  mental  diseases  are 
on  record,  the  greatest  caution  must  be  observed. 

At  any  rate,  under  no  circumstances  should  the  physical 
education  of  such  children  be  neglected  on  account  of  the  men- 
tal. It  is  just  in  such  cases  that  the  overexertion  may  have  very 
bad  consequences,  and  it  has  very  often  happened  that  a  per- 
verted education  has  made  entirely  useless  men  out  of  such  won- 
derful children.  Children  must  grow,  and  to  that  end  it  is  of 
great  importance  that  they  should  have  abundant  good  nour- 
ishment,  and  spend  much  time   in  the   open  air    (sunshine). 


410  Human  Intelligence. 


Whereas  a  child  can  easily  master  a  subject  for  which  it  has  a 
passion,  and  may  accomplish  something  great  in  it,  we  see,  on 
the  other  hand^  that  even  most  talented  children  often  accom- 
plish nothing  if  they  have  aversion  to  the  subject.    Fatigue  and 
mental  overstrain  may  very  easily  then  result;  a  congenital  dis- 
position is  also  here  mostly  at  fault.     Sometimes  there  is  a  won- 
derful, exceedingly  great  gift  for  one  subject,  as,  for  instance, 
for  mathematics ;  and  it  seems  as  if  by  this  the  whole  equilibrium 
is  disturbed,  so  that  no  room  is  left  for  other  subjects,  as,  for 
instance,  for  languages,  as  is  shown  by  the  already  mentioned 
examples  of  great  men.    Thanks  to  the  lack  of  desire  existing  in 
talented  children  for  grinding  at  something  dry,  which  does  not 
appeal  to  them,  they  make  no  progress  in  it.     Children  who 
accomplish  much  in  one  direction,  and  are  always  thinking  about 
their  favorite  subject   (just  this  intensive  attention  which  they 
always  give  to  the  same  subject  is  a  sign  of  most  ingenious  acts, 
of   ingenious   disposition),   often  become   dreamy  and   absent- 
minded  concerning  those  subjects  which  they  dO'  not  like.    Some- 
time they  even  turn  their  passion  to  a  subject  which  has  no  rela- 
tion whatever  to  their  studies,  and  it  is  not  surprising  then  that 
they  become  bad  pupils.     Sir  Walter  Scott,  undoubtedly  one  of 
the  greatest  novel  writers  in  the  world,  could  write  novels  with 
exceeding  ease,  and  would  read  them  to  others ;  at  the  same  time 
he  neglected  the  school-work,  and  was  considered  b}^  his  teachers 
as  ''real  stupid."    Linne,  the  great  Swedish  botanist,  was  a  bad 
student  in  dead  languages,  but  instead  he  was  continually  en- 
gaged in  studying  plants.     On  account  of  his  bad  school  record 
the  teachers  advised  him  to  become  an  artisan.    His  father  sent 
him  to  Lund  to  study  theology,  but  instead  of  becoming  a  bad 
theologian,  he  became  the  greatest  botanist  in  the  world.     If 
things  had  gone  according  to  his  father's  wishes  he  would  have 
become  a  respectable  minister  in  some  corner  of  Sweden,  of 
whom  the  world  would  never  have  heard  much. 

Napoleon  was  a  good  pupil  in  mathematics,  but  a  bad  one 
in  languages.    The  great  philsopher  Locke  was,  as  he  used  to 


Great  Men  as  Bad  Pupils.  411 

tell  his  hostess,  Lady  Masham,  a  mighty  bad  pupil  in  school ;  and 
Isaac  Newton,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  was  no  better. 
,The  distinguished  Jesuit,  Clavius,  a  great  mathematician,  was 
expelled  from  school  for  incapability;  and  Liebig,  as  already 
mentioned,  was  a  "disgrace  to  the  school."  It  is  not  impossible 
that  this  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  a  genius  does  not*  gain  much 
respect  in  his  own  home  town.  Such  a  dreaming  boy,  who 
shows  some  real  ingenuity  in  certain  subjects^  but  is  entirely  im- 
practical, or  even  dumb,  in  the  usual  requirements  of  this  world, 
is  liable  to  excite  the  sneers  and  mockery  of  his  classmates. 
Some  of  these  children — geniuses^ — are  considered  eccentric  or 
crazy;  for  instance,  Shelley  was  called  by  his  comrades  "Mad 
Shelley."  Such  children  often  manifest,  even  at  that  age,  a  ten- 
dency to  keep  themselves  separated  from  their  playmates  and 
follow  in  loneliness  their  thoughts.  Like  to  Napoleon,  when  a 
child,  so  it  has  happened  to  other  great  men  to  be  ridiculed,  and 
often  kicked  by  other  children.  This  happened  with  the  little 
Newton,  and  only  after  he  once  kicked  one  of  the  boys  black  and 
blue,  did  his  colleagues  let  him,  alone.  Newton,  as  a  bad  pupil, 
sat  on  the  bench  next  the  last,  and  the  boy  who  sat  before  him 
ridiculed  him.  With  iron  diligence,  however,  he  studied  all  the 
school  subjects  and  outflanked  the  other.  Even  the  parents  of 
the  comrades  often  laugh  over  the  peculiarities  of  such  children 
— as  they,  in  their  ignorance,  generally  call  such  rare  gifts  in 
some  special  direction — or  they  look  upon  them  as  abnormal  or 
fools.  Sometimes  jealousy  has  something  to  do  with  it.  Con- 
sidering that  such  children,  due  sometimes  to  humble  descent, 
unrefined  relations,  poverty,  shabby  clothes,  etc.,  and  also  maybe 
to  some  peculiarities,  never  command  any  respect,  it  is  hardly 
surprising  that  they  do  not  enjoy  great  distinction  in  their  home 
town,  and  home  country,  when  they  grow  up  to  be  great  men. 
Christ  proved  Himself  to  be  great  in  knowing  human  nature 
when  He  said  that  nobody  is  looked  upon  as  a  prophet  in  his 
own  home  place :  "Nemo  est  acceptus  Propheta  in  Patria."^ 
3  See  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  iv;  St.  Matthew,  xiii;  St.  Mark,  vi,  1-6. 


IX.    HYGIENIC  PRINCIPLES  FOR  A  REFORM  OF  THE 

SCHOOL  CURRICULUM,  PARTICULARLY  IN  THE 

MIDDLE  SCHOOLS  (HIGH  SCHOOLS). 


CHAPTER   LIV. 

Reform  of  the  High-school  Curriculum  on  Hygienic, 
Physiological  Principles. 

The  Necessity  of  Arranging  the  School  Roster  According 
to  the  Individual  Fitness  of  the  Pupils. 

It  is  hardly  possible,  I  think,  to  find  among  a  million  men 
two  individuals  who  are  anatomically  and  physiologically  built 
perfectly  alike.  Surely,  the  same  difference  exists  also  in  regard 
to  mental  qualifications  in  children  and  adults,  because  these  are, 
as  we  have  already  pointed  out,  closely  connected  with  the 
physical  condition  of  the  body.  It  is,  therefore,  obvious  that  it 
must  be  very  difficult,  nay,  unnatural,  to  have  a  curriculum  like 
that  at  the  present  time  in  vogue  in  the  high  schools,  which 
treats  everyone  alike  and  puts  all  the  pupils  on  the  same  level 
without  taking  into  consideration  the  individual  qualification, 
and  demands  of  all  the  same  amount  of  knowledge  in  the  vari- 
ous branches.  Many  children  manifest  many-sided  qualifica- 
tions, but  it  is  well  known  that  with  such  many-sidedness  goes 
hand-in-hand  a  superficiality,  although  fortunately  there  also 
exist  some  exceptions.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find  in  children 
a  certain  degree  of  one-sidedness  which,  as  a  rule,  is  also  asso- 
ciated with  a  deeper  absorption  in  one  definite  subject;  and  this 
i.s,  indeed,  very  often  connected  with  a  particular  deficiency  in 
other  subjects.  So,  for  instance,  in  some  pupils,  even  during 
childhood,  there  is  manifest  a  striking  gift  for  languages,  but 
at  the  same  time  an  absolute  unfitness  for  mathematics;  others, 
again,  manifest  a  gift  for  drawing,  for  the  visible,  which  often 
(412) 


Reform  of  School  Curriculum.  413 

betrays  an  artistic  nature,  but  at  the  same  time  there  is  shown 
an  aversion  for  theoretical  subjects.  Children  who  manifest  a 
most  particular  gift  for  mathematics  have  often,  as  already 
said,  difficulties  in  learning  languages,  no  matter  how  much  they 
are  tortured.  It  may  be  possible  to  make  them  study  gram- 
matical rules  with  the  aid  of  examples,  because  the  useful  appli- 
cation of  these  rules  often  resembles  the  solution  of  a  mathe- 
matical problem.  Only  the  learning  of  dead  words  offers  them 
difficulties,  because  the  words  do  not  mean  anything  to  them, 
and  they  do  not  want  to  grind  it,  or  cannot  do  it.  For  that  rea- 
son they  do  not  succeed  in  retaining  words,  and  still  less  do  they 
succeed  in  understanding  what  they  have  learned,  or  to  speak 
the  language.  Unfortunately,  such  pupils  must  torment  them- 
selves in  our  schools  for  years  with  the  dead  languages.  In 
consequence  of  this  it  may  happen  that  pupils  who  are  entirely 
unfit  for  grinding,  but  may  possess  brilliant  gifts  for  a  physician, 
an  able  surgeon  and  operator — these  are  real  artists,  and  some- 
times artistic  natures — cannot  follow  their  inclinations,  which 
would  be  profitable  for  all  mankind,  because  they  cannot  manage 
the  languages,  and  are,  therefore,  compelled  to  follow  another 
career.  The  question  then  involuntarily  arises  whether  it  is 
necessary  that  pupils  of  heterogeneous  gifts  should  all  penetrate 
equally  deep  into  the  same  subjects,  even  into  those  for  which 
they  are  absolutely  unfit,  which  means  that  they  lack  not  the 
will,  but  the  ability. 

The  further  question  is,  whether  such  pupils  should  really 
spend  the  best  years,  their  youth,  endangering  their  nervous 
system  and  nervous  faculties  to  drum  in  such  things  which 
they  will  invariably  forget  later?  If  anybody  is  not  fit  for  study- 
ing foreign  languages,  there  is  nothing  else  left  for  him  to  do 
but  to  plug  in  the  rules  and  words.  Everybody  knows,  however, 
that  what  is  plugged  in  is  not  of  lasting  duration.  It  is  surely 
true  that  it  is  best  to  read  Latin  classics  in  the  original.  If, 
however,  a  person  who  has  congenitally  no  gifts  whatever  for 
foreign  languages,  particularly  for  the  dead  ones,  and  probably 


414  Human  Intelligence. 


has  a  congenital  aversion  for  it,  wants  to  accomplish  the  read- 
ing of  Ovid  of  Horace  in  the  original,  usually  he  can  only  do  it 
— ^no  experienced  physician  would  deny  it — at  the  expense  of 
injuring  his  nervous  system  and  his  mental  faculties.  It  may 
even  lead  to  serious  disturbances  in  cases  in  which  there  is  a 
congenital  nervous  disposition.  Could  it  not  be  possible  to  be 
satisfied  with  the  reading  of  Caesar's  "Bellum  Gallicum,"  which 
for  many  is  likewise  also  a  hard  nut  to  crack?  Or,  still  better, 
could  not  one  enjoy  the  reading  of  these  authors  in  translation? 
And  is  it  altogether  necessary  that  the  pupils  should  grind  in  the 
grammar  rules  like  parrots?  It  is  hardly  possible  to  think  of 
a  more  mind-killing  way  of  learning!  Such  learning  surely 
encourages  plugging,  and  I  believe  that  it  should  be  the  problem 
of  the  modern  school  to  prevent  plugging  in  the  manner  which 
I  have  before  indicated,  and  to  guide  the  children  to  grasp  every- 
thing with  their  mind,  because  only  thus  intelligence  may  be 
promoted.  I  shall  be  very  glad  if  these  lines  be  not  interpreted 
as  a  protest  against  humanistic  studies!  Nothing  would  be 
further  from  me  than  this,  as  I  will  myself  always  remain 
thankful  to  the  principal  of  the  school  in  Nagy-Kanizsa  in  Hun- 
gary for  the  beautiful  Latin  treasury  which  I  have  acquired 
in  the  course  of  the  eight  years  at  one  hour  daily.  Moreover,  I 
have  studied  Latin  and  all  languages  in  general  with  pleasure 
and  devotion.  Nevertheless,  I  cannot  deny  my  sympathy  for  the 
unfortunate  pupils  who  lack  absolutely  this  faculty  and  for  that 
reason  have  been  either  cut  off  entirely  from  studying  at  the 
university,  for  which  they  have  otherwise  been  well  qualified,  or 
who  succeeded  in  doing  it  only  with  great  injury  to  their  nervous 
system  or  mental  condition.  My  argument  is  that  pupils  who 
are  very  gifted  in  some  special  subject  and  make  great  progress 
in  it,  but  make  no  progress  in  the  others,  not  because  of  lack  of 
diligence,  but  of  congenital  difficulties  in  comprehension,  as,  for 
instance,  lack  of  the  gift  for  languages  or  mathematics,  should 
not  be  deprived  of  university  study,  for  many  a  great  talent 
gets  lost  in  that  way.     I  know  from  my  own  experience  that 


Reform  of  School  Curriculum.  415 

many  who  were  very  inept  high-school  pupils,  when  they  entered 
the  university  and  got  a  hold  of  some  subject  which  suited 
their  abilities,  became  some  of  the  best  students.  I  am  also 
of  the  opinion  that  the  school  should  avoid  levelling  all  con- 
genital dispositions  and  demanding  of  all  pupils  the  same  amount 
of  theoretical  knowledge,  but  should  rather  attempt,  by  close 
observation,  to  find  out  the  special  abilities  of  the  individual 
pupil  and  arrange  a  roster  accordingly.  When  there  are  too 
great  a  number  of  pupils  in  one  classroom,  as  is  unfortunately 
the  case  at  present,  with  insufficient  school  accommodations  due 
to  a  false  economy,  it  is  naturally  impossible  to  have  control  over 
the  faculties  of  the  individual  pupils.  And  still  it  would  work 
well,  from  a  hygienic  standpoint,  if  the  pupils  were  divided  into 
several  groups.  One  group  should  be  formed  of  pupils  who 
have  a  special  ability  for  languages;  as  a  rule,  with  this  is  gen- 
erally associated  an  easy  acquisition  of  geographical  and  his- 
torical knowledge.  Another  group  should  be  formed  of  those 
who  have  a  fitness  for  mathematics;  with  this  generally  goes 
hand-in-hand  a  great  fitness  for  physics,  chemistry  and  natural 
sciences.  By  the  forming  of  such  groups,  one  for  languages  and 
for  history,  suitable  for  theoretical  instruction,  and  the  other  for 
mathematics  and  natural  sciences  suitable  for  practical  instruc- 
tion, a  higher  grade  of  efficiency  could  be  required  of  some,  and 
for  the  badly  fitted  lower  requirements  could  be  made.  Such 
assorting  of  the  pupils  could  take  place  best  by  establishing  an 
entrance  examination  for  the  high  school,  whereby  the  sense- 
organs  and  the  various  congenital  abilities  could  be  thoroughly 
examined  by  an  intelligence  test. 

The  reformed  high  schools  which  are  coming  in  vogue  more 
and  more  in  Germany  seem  to  me  to  be  a  real  progress  in  the 
direction  pointed  out.  The  foundation  laid  in  these  schools  is 
the  same.  The  pupils  are  introduced  to  the  study  of  languages 
through  the  French  and  to  the  study  of  grammar  through  the 
German,  The  study  of  the  dead  languages  begins  only  in  the 
lower  sophomore  class  with  Latin,  and  entering  the  lower  junior 


416  Human  Intelligence. 


class  the  pupils  have  the  privilege  of  deciding  whether  they  desire 
to  take  up  the  humanistic  or  the  realistic  studies.  Both  divisions 
branch  out  once  more  in  the  lov/er  senior  class  into  two  sub- 
divisions, one  for  languages  and  another  for  mathematics.  The 
value  of  this  organization  lies,  first  of  all,  in  the  fact  that  the 
decision  is  made  at  a  time  when  it  becomes  manifest  in  which 
direction  the  inclinations  of  the  pupils  are  pointing. 


CHAPTER   LV. 

The  Necessity  for  an  Expert  Examination  of  the 
Organs  of  Sense  and  the  Intelligence  of 
Pupils  Before  Entering  the  Gym- 
nasium (High  School). 

The  present-day  high  schools  set  such  requirements  on  the 
children  during  the  period  of  tlieir  developnient,  and  on  young 
men,  that  even  those  with  inborn  good  potentiality  and  fitness 
can  satisfy  them  only  with  difficulty.  How  great,  then,  must  be 
that  difficulty  when  the  potentiality  is  deficient.  In  every  high 
school  or  manual  training  school  there  may  be  found  a  number 
of  pupils  who,  notwithstanding  their  very  deficient  mental  facul- 
ties, are  there  by  compulsion,  either  because  of  the  parents' 
ambition,  or,  vei*y  often,  for  fear  of  three  years'  military 
service.  Notwithstanding  very  diligent  grinding,  sooner  or 
later,  in  such,  cases  a  physical  and  mental  breakdown  takes 
place,  if  the  futility  of  further  efforts  has  not  been  con- 
vincingly shown  before  by  the  bad  school  reports.  Sometimes 
such  weak  pupils  may,  with  greatest  difficulties  and  by  strain- 
ing all  their  energy,  be  able  to  qualify  for  the  university,  but 
they  suffer  failure  there.  To  save  the  parents  and  the  pupils 
such  disappointments,  which  are  sometimes  accompanied  with 
grave  injury  to  the  body  and  mind,  and  to  diminish  the 
number  of  individuals  who  fail  in  life,  as  well  as  the  number 
of  insufficiently  educated  mental  proletariat,  it  would  be  better 
to  examine  the  pupils  in  regard  to  their  potentiality  and  their 
ability  before  they  enter  the  high  school.  It  is  true  that  we 
already  have  at  present  entrance  requirements  in  regard  to  ele- 
mentary knowledge,  but  this  can  be  easily  passed  by  those 
entirely  unfit  by  means  of  grinding.  This,  however,  is  just  the 
important   point — that   such   "grinders,"   who  have   no   ability 

whatever,  should  be  excluded.     I  have  been  repeatedly  told  by 

27  (417) 


418  Human  Intelligence. 


high-school  professors  that  just  such  pupils  who  passed  a  bril- 
liant entrance  examination  by  grinding  have  proved  themselves 
as  the  most  deficient  pupils  one  or  two  years  later,  and  had  to 
leave  school. 

I  would  like  to  suggest  that  not  the  knowledge  of  the  pupil 
should  be  examined,  but  his  congenital  abilities,  and  whether  he 
really  possess  the  faculty  to  discern  sensory  impulses  and  make 
use  of  them  in  forming  opinions,  and  is  able  to  think  independ- 
ently. We  have  already  alluded  to  the  importance  of  perfect 
sensory  organs,  and  experience  confirms  the  fact  that,  as  a  rule, 
deficiencies  of  the  sensory  organs  go  hand-in-hand  with  low 
intelligence.  The  interior  of  the  eye  of  every  pupil  should  be 
examined  by  an  expert  oculist  to  ascertain  whether  there  is  any 
weakness  of  sight  existing.  Such  may  be  congenital,  and  some- 
times not  discovered  until  later.  An  ear  expert  should  further 
examine  the  condition  of  the  interior  of  the  ear,  the  minute  hear- 
ing apparatus  and  the  acuteness  of  hearing.  Should  the  sensory 
organs  be  found  in  a  good  condition,  it  is  also  necessary  to 
examine  whether  they  are  correctly  applied.  For  this  purpose 
the  games  according  to  the  Montessori  method  should  be  used, 
which  we  have  described  in  the  chapter  on  the  importance  of 
the  sensory,  organs.  Particular  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
point,  whether  the  various  colors  and  shadings  are  well  recog- 
nized, because  very  often  deficiencies  in  distinguishing  colors  go 
hand-in-hand  with  very  low  intelligence,  as  it  has  been  pointed 
out  by  Kannegiesser  in  Erfurt.  He  found  that  intelligence  and 
color  recognition  are  proportionate.  Normal  children  of  5  or  6 
years  are  able  to  indicate  all  colors  and  shadings.  Inapt  students 
have,  according  to  him,  the  lowest  ability  to  distinguish  colors. 
When  the  examination  in  sensory  exercises  has  been  successful, 
the  next  in  order  would  be  the  examination  of  the  intelligence 
by  a  psychiatrist.  This  could  be  done  best  in  the  order  recom- 
mended by  Cramer^  for  testing  the  intelligence  in  general.  It 
is  necessary  to  establish  whether  the  pupil  understands  various 

1  Cramer,  Allgemeine  Zeitschrift  fiir  Psychiatric,  Bd.  Ixvii,  1912. 


Examination  of  Sense  Organs.  419 

words  and  is  able  to  repeat  them  after  i  or  2  minutes.  Next 
the  reverse  associations  should  be  examined,  whether  he  can 
recite  the  names  of  the  months,  weeks,  and  days,  in  reverse 
order,  and  whether  he  is  able  to  count  the  numbers  from  one 
hundred  backward.  Next  would  come  questions  about  the  dif- 
ference between  various  things,  as  between  a  bird  and  butterfly, 
between  ice  and  water,  misery  and  thrift;  also  descriptions  of 
various  objects.  Further  on  should  follow  definitions  of  various 
objects  and  ideas,  as,  for  example,  what  is  a  watch,  a  judge,  a 
physician,  a  merchant,  etc.  Then  a  proverb  with  a  moral  in  it, 
or  one  of  the  Commandments,  *'Thou  shalt  not  steal,"  could  be 
recited,  and  the  reason  for  it  asked.  From  the  answers  given  in 
regard  to  the  difference  between  various  things,  the  sagacity  of 
the  pupil  can  be  easily  recognized.  The  experiments  consist,  for 
instance,  in  the  picking  out  of  an  easily  recognizable  false  coin 
among  many  good  ones  (a  5-year-old  Dutch  girl  was  able,  in 
the  course  of  my  experiments,  to  pick  out  among  ten  silver 
guldens  the  one  that  was  false)  ;  or  in  arranging  five  little  boxes, 
as  proposed  by  Binet,  according^  to  their  weight;  or  in  giving 
the  change  from  coins  of  larger  value ;  in  the  definitions  of  vari- 
ous conceptions;  or  in  giving  the  reason  for  a  proverb.  By  all 
of  these  it  would  be 'possible  to  recognize  very  easily  the  inborn 
wit  of  the  pupil.  Next  would  come  formation  of  sentences  from 
three  given  -words,  as  hunter,  rabbit,  and  field;  or,  judge,  thief, 
and  jail. 

Finally,  the  mechanical  memory  could  be  tested  following 
Ziehen's  proposition,  by  telling  a  very  simple  story  once  and 
having  it  repeated.  As  most  appropriate  for  this  purpose  may 
be  recommended  ^sop's  or  Lafontaine's  fables,  and  hereby  it 
would  easily  be  possible  to  establish  whether  the  pupil  is  able  to 
concentrate  his  thoughts  or  not.  If  he  should  lack  in  that,  he 
may  then  also  be  considered  unfit  to  learn.  I  may,  here  again, 
repeat  the  case  of  the  monkey  trainer,  related  by  Darwin,  who 
never  bought  a  monkey  if  he  noticed  that  it  became  distracted 
from  instruction  by  every  passing  fly. 


420  Human  Intelligence. 


While  the  above-mentioned  tests  of  intelligence  are  applied 
for  testing  mental  disease,  I  think  that  they  can  be  applied  equally- 
well  for  testing  the  mental  faculties  of  pupils  applying  for 
entrance  into  high  schools.  In  case  a  pupil  does  not  give  a  satis- 
factory answer,  it  is  necessary  to  establish  whether  the  pupil  did 
not  become  confused  while  giving  the  answer,  and  this  can 
be  easily  established  by  an  experienced  psychiatrist.  That  a 
normal  pupil  should  give  unsatisfactory  answers  to  the  major- 
ity of  the  questions  can  hardly  be  assumed.  If  the  result  of 
the  examination  should  be  bad,  it  would  be  necessary  to  under- 
take a  thorough  physical  examination  of  the  applicant.  It  should 
be  ascertained  whether  there  are  adenoid  vegetations;  whether 
the  ductless  glands,  such  as  the  thyroid,  sexual  glands  (cryptor- 
chismus)  are  not  deviated  from  the  normal  (retardation  in 
growth,  formation  of  the  teeth,  condition  of  the  thoracic  skele- 
ton, etc.)  ;  whether  the  subject  is  well  nourished.  Generally 
speaking,  every  child  should  be  thoroughly  examined  physically 
before  entering  school.  I  would  further  suggest  that  of  each 
child  entering  school  a  biological  record  chart  should  be  pre- 
pared, and  at  the  head  of  it  should  be  entered  the  hereditary 
disposition  (father  alcoholic;  poverty  of  the  parents;  position  of 
the  latter;  housing  conditions, — for  example,  cellar  apartments; 
previous  diseases).  This  should  be  introduced  in  the  lower 
schools,  but  in  mentally  backward  children  it  should  also  be 
established  by  the  Wassermann  test  of  the  blood  whether  there 
is  hereditary  syphilis,  which,  according  to  many  contributions 
by  Dr.  von  Leppmann,^  of  the  insane  asylum  at  Daldorf,  occurs 
very  frequently  in  such  cases.  In  case  the  Wassermann  test 
should  be  positive,  it  would  be  advisable  to  employ  an  anti- 
syphilitic  treatment,  but,  at  any  rate,  iodine  syrup,  codliver  oil, 
etc.,  should  be  administered. 

In  such  biological  record  charts  should  be  noted  everything 
concerning  changes  during  the  years  of  puberty  as  well  as  the 


2Leppmann,  Ueber  die  Beziehungen  der  Idiotic  zur  Syphilis,  Deutsche 
Zeitschrift  fiir  Nervenheilkunde,  Bd.  xxxix,  S.  81. 


Examination  of  Sense  Organs.  421 

further  development  of  the  pupils.  I  think  that  the  testing  of 
the  sensory  organs  and  of  the  intelligence  would  also  have  the 
great  advantage  that  striking  abilities  would  be  at  once  recog- 
nized, and  further  cultivated  and  developed.  It  would  also  con- 
siderably facilitate  the  grouping  of  the  children  as  very  gifted, 
mediocre,  and  weak.  It  would  also  be  found  out  whether  the 
pupil  is  lacking  in  diligence  or  ability.  By  saving  the  results  of 
such  tests  entered  on  the  biological  charts  and  by  continuous  cur- 
rent additions  to  them,  the  school  would  be  in  a  position  to  aid 
the  parents  materially  in  selecting  a  life  vocation  for  the  pupils. 
From  the  results  of  tests  of  the  sensory  organs  and  other  mani- 
festations of  the  pupils,  such  as  preferences  for  certain  subjects, 
the  sharp  eye  of  the  teacher  would  be  able  to  discover  for  what 
future  vocation  the  pupil  may  be  best  fitted,  and  these  special 
abilities  may  be  nursed  in  school.  In  this  way  the  school  would 
best  fulfil  its  true  object:  to  prepare  the  pupils  for  life. 


CHAPTER    LVI. 

The  Obligatory  Training  in  Art  Needlework  and 
Manual  Training. 

Of  all  the  criticisms  which  are  advanced  against  the  present- 
day  high-school  course,  the  most  deserving  one  is  that  the  pupils 
enter  life  filled  with*  theoretical  knowledge,  but  entirely  unprac- 
tical. They  have  learned  a  good  many  theoretical  things  in 
school,  but  have  gained  little  of  practical  value;  they  are  often 
entirely  uninformed  in  regard  to  the  simplest  facts  of  practical 
life,  just  because  the  practical  sense,  as  well  as  the  exercise  of 
the  sensory  organs,  has  been  neglected  during  their  long,  almost 
entirely  theoretical,  instruction.  It  is  no  wonder  that  the  offi- 
cers instructing  those  entering  the  one-year  voluntary  military 
service  in  the  army  are  often  heard  to  complain  of  how  unskilled 
some  of  the  young  men  are,  coming  from  the  high  schools, 
heavily  laden  with  theoretical  knowledge,  in  contrast  with  the 
recruits  coming  from  the  laboring  classes.  This  is  caused  by 
the  fact  that  those  young  men  have  exercised  their  sense-organs, 
and  also  their  hands  much  less  than  the  young  men  who  have 
had  a  manual  trade.  The  latter  are,  therefore,  often,  to  a  certain 
degree,  superior  as  far  as  training  and  skillfulness  are  con- 
cerned. To  remedy  this  condition,  particularly  in  our  eminently 
practical  time,  it  is  necessary  that  everyone,  no  matter  how  high 
his  position  or  profession,  should  possess  a  certain  degree  of 
business  ability.  The  word  "business"  in  English  is  applied  not 
only  to  commercial  transactions,  but  is  also  applicable  to  all 
callings;  and  it  is  just  as  becoming  to  the  statesman  and  the 
diplomat  as  to  the  smallest  merchant,  if  they,  who  are  actually 
managing  the  transactions  of  a  large  community,  are  capable 
"business  men."  To  manifest  such  business  ability  it  is  neces- 
sary, above  all  else,  to  have  common  sense,  great  experience  in 
practical  matters,  and  all  perceptions  must  be  sharpened,  which 
(422) 


Obligatory  Manual  Training.  423 

is  indeed  indispensable  in  our  processes  of  thought.  Only  then 
are  we  able  to  think  practically,  and  just  as  in  rational  thinking 
pass  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract,  from  the  known  to  the 
unknown,  and  thus  build  all  our  higher  combinations  of  thought 
and  our  conclusive  opinions.  The  most  important  and  funda- 
mental thing  in  this  connection  is  that  the  functions  of  the 
organs  of  the  sense  should  be  perfect,  and  these  should  be 
sharpened,  beginning  in  childhood.  Children,  therefore,  at  the 
age  of  4  or  5  should  undertake  such  games  as  have  been  intro- 
duced by  Dr.  Maria  Montessori,^  and  v/hich  could  be  made  more 
complete  in  various  directions;  and  a  great  advantage  here 
would  be  that  the  children  could  thus  learn  the  elements  of 
knowledge,  writing,  reading  and  arithmetic  while  playing,  with- 
out wasting  so  much  of  their  valuable  mental  capital.  In  this 
way  the  practical  sense  would  be  awakened  by  itself  in  the  child. 
If  a  child  has  practised  these  exercises  with  his  hands,  which  are 
sharpening  its  senses,  it  gains  in  manual  training  and  skill. 
These  should  be  followed,  at  the  age  of  6  or  y,  by  the  regular 
manual  training  instruction,  whereb}'-  the  most  varied  objects 
could  be  modelled  in  clay  or  plastilin  from  life  or  patterns, 
according  to  the  capability  of  the  children.  By  selecting  these 
objects  from  the,  animal  or  plant  kingdoms,  it  would  be  possible 
to  give  the  children  instructions  also  in  these  subjects.  Consid- 
ering the  fact  that  nature  drives  children,  as  well  as  young  ani- 
mals, to  play,  it  would  really  be  a  crime  against  the  children  to 
disturb  them  in  their  innocent  plays;  on  the  contrary,  we  must 
encourage  them  to  play,  and  utilize  that  instinct  for  the  purpose 
of  instruction.  As  long  as  children  are  in  the  playing  age,  all 
branches  of  instruction  should  be  taught  them  during  their  play. 
Herewith  it  would  be  possible  at  the  same  time  to  avoid  the 
injurious  stiff  sitting  on  the  school-benches,  which  is  diametric- 
ally opposed  to  the  child's  nature  and  unnatural  besides.  If,  as 
we  see  at  present,  the  modern  tendency  to  return  to  nature  is 
applied  to  all  things,  to  our  mode  of  life,  feeding  and  dressing, 

1  Selbstatig*  Erziehung.     Stuttgart,  1913. 


424  Human  Intelligence. 


I  can  see  no  reason  why  we  should  not  follow  the  same  in 
rational  education. 

The  hands  of  the  children,  their  fingers  which  are  con- 
stantly in  motion,  demand  activity,  and  this  alone  calls  aloud 
for  instruction  in  manual  training.  Hereby  the  senses  are 
enormously  sharpened,  and  the  senses  of  color  and  proportion 
are  acquired.  This  is  of  particular  importance,  because  in  this 
way  the  ability  to  size  up  things  in  a  practical  way  is  strength- 
ened. We  have  already  mentioned  how  essential  this  is  in  pro- 
moting rational  thinking.  By  sharpening  the  sensory  organs  and 
developing  the  practical  sense  we  have  found  the  right  way  of 
developing  the  child's  intelligence.  The  instruction  in  arts  and 
crafts  (which  has  been  introduced  into  many  schools  in  Germany 
and  Austria,  and  its  general  introduction  is  urgently  needed) 
could  be  utilized  also  for  teaching  the  children  tO:  make  various 
useful  objects  in  wood  and  other  material.  In  this  manner  the 
way  for  instruction  in  the  various  manual  trades  would  be 
paved.  The  selection  of  the  latter  could  be  made  according  to 
the  aptness  shown  during  the  games,  because  during  these  the 
disposition  of  the  individual  is  best  manifested.  Teachers  should 
not  exercise  any  influence  at  all  upon  the  children  in  selecting 
their  games ;  the  child  itself  should  select  the  game  which  appeals 
to  it  the  most.  Considering  the  fact  that  there  is  no  "compul- 
sion" in  this  regard,  talents  for  various  things  and  vocations 
could  be  recognized  in  the  small  child  and  further  developed. 
Just  the  same  as  in  the  games  for  exercising  the  senses  should 
the  child  also  select  the  arts  and  crafts  which  it  wishes  to  learn, 
in  which  case  the  teacher  naturally  could  assist  by  advising,  but 
there  should  be  no  commanding  or  compelling.  The  results  of 
the  instructions  in  arts  and  crafts  could  also  serve  very  well  as 
an  indicator  in  this  connection. 

At  least  one  year,  and  in  the  case  of  some  trades  even  more, 
should  be  reserved  for  such  manual  trade-school  training.  At 
any  rate,  one  should,  for  hygienic  reasons,  avoid  keeping  young 
people  on  the  school-bench  for  such  an  extended  period,  which 


Obligatory  Manual  Training.  425 

at  present  covers  thirteen  to  fourteen  years,  and  to  which  from 
five  to  six  years  of  university  training  are  often  added.  Of  the 
eight  to  nine  years  of  high  schooHng  and  the  seven  years  of 
elementary  schooling,  one  year  could  readily  be  devoted  to 
manual  training  and  one  year  to  trade  schooling,  or,  at  least, 
six  months  could  be  devoted  to  each. 

It  would  be  best  if  the  theoretical  instruction  were  withheld 
until  after  the  completion  of  these  practical  years,  during  which 
the  most  varied  subjects  would  be  taught  by  example  anyway, 
and  then  joined  therewith.  I  have  mentioned  before  that  it 
would  be  most  rational  if  practical  instruction  came  first  in 
everything  and  theoretical  instruction  followed,  not  as  is  now 
the  universal  practice,  to  give  children  the  tiresome  theoretical 
instruction  first  and  practical  instruction  afterward.^  Practical 
thinking  should  come  first;  after  that,  theoretical. 

Instruction  in  the  trades  is  also  eminently  useful,  in  that 
those  who  have  received  such  training  are  not  compelled  to  beg, 
if  for  any  reason  they  are  thrown  on  their  own  resources  either 
because  of  inadaptability  to  study  or  because  of  misfortunes  in 
practical  life.  Knowledge  of  a  trade  would  protect  them  from 
the  most  bitter  want.  Efficient  tradesmen  are  always  able  to 
find  their  bread.  In  the  rearing  of  girls  it  would  also  be  of 
advantage  if  they  were  taught  some  useful,  money-making  busi- 
ness in  their  -childhood  or  youth.  In  the  homes  of  the  various 
rulers  there  is  a  tradition  that  the  various  members  of  royal 
families  learn  some  trade.  In  our  stirring  times  nothing  stands 
on  sure  feet,  and  there  is  also  rattling  at  the  thrones.  One  can 
be  robbed  of  his  physical  belongings,  but  not  of  what  is  carried 
in  his  head.  Of  all  possessions,  the  things  which  a  man  has 
learned — that  which  he  knows — are  the  surest  aid  to  his  advance- 
ment. 

Of  the  various  forms  of  manual  work,  gardening  and  farm- 
ing are  to  be  recommended,  first  of  all.     This  kind  of  work 


1  See  the  chapter  about  studying  foreign  languages. 


426  Human  Intelligence. 


would  be  particularly  useful  today,  because  of  the  unholy  deser- 
tion of  agricultural  workers  from  the  home-like  soil  to  the  fac- 
tories in  the  larger  cities.  It  would  be  a  great  blessing  if  the 
growing  up  children  would  spend  their  time  in  the  open  air,  and 
thereby  develop  better  mentally  and  physically.  The  love  of 
Nature  would  thereby  also  be  fostered  to  the  best  advantage 
among  them. 


CHAPTER  LVII. 
The  Necessity  for  Outdoor  Schools. 

We  can  observe  in  animals  that  their  young  have  a  peculiar 
instinct  which  compels  them  to  be  continually  in  motion.  Young 
dogs  or  young  cats  do  not  keep  quiet  for  a  minute;  they  jump 
around  constantly,  and  play  the  whole  day;  their  parents  let 
them  do  as  they  please,  and  even  participate  in  their  play. 

The  human  young  also  present  no  exception  from  that 
general  rule;  the  impulse  to  move  around  is  born  with  them; 
only  the  old  of  the  "homo  sapiens"  are  not  so  sensible  as  dog 
or  cat  mothers,  and  they  try  as  much  as  possible  toi  restrain  that 
impulse  to  motion.  This  continual  motion  brings  about  a  better 
blood-circulation,  promotes  the  metabolism  which  is  so  great  in 
children  and  contributes  greatly  to  their  development.  If  they 
have  that  desire  to  play  in  the  free  air,  their  health  is  very  much 
benefited  by  it.  We  thus  see,  therefore,  how  it  is  against  nature 
when  children  and  growing  young  people  of  both  sexes  have  to 
spend  the  most  sunny  hours  every  day  sitting  straight  in  the 
damp,  bad  air  of  the  often  overcrowded  classrooms.  And  this, 
moreover,  during  the  years  of  their  growth  and  development 
when  they,  just  like  a  young  plant,  a  young  tree  which  is  yet  to 
grow,  need  the  most  oxygen  and  most  sunshine.  We  designate 
our  era  over  and  over  again  as  the  century  of  enlightenment ;  we 
see  everywhere  attempts  to  arrange  our  living  conditions  as  hy- 
gienically  as  possible,  and  even  the  State  takes  an  active  part  in 
it.  It  is,  therefore,  quite  remarkable  that,  as  if  we  did  not 
see  the  forest  for  the  trees,  we  have  not  come]  to  see!  yet  that  it 
must  be  very  unhealthy  when  a  child,  or  a  young  boy,  or  girl 
during  puberty  has  to  spend  five  to  six  hours  daily  in  the  damp 
school-air,  and  after  that  two  to  three  hours  at  home  with  school- 
lessons.  What  do  we  not  do  to  combat  tuberculosis,  and  at  the 
same  time  how  irrational  is  it  to  attempt  to  destroy  entirely  the 

(427) 


428  Human  Intelligence. 


bacilli,  and  at  the  same  time  permit  the  children  to  inhale  them 
in  the  classrooms  overfilled  with  bad  air  ?  A  change  for  the  bet- 
ter could  here  be  accomplished  if  the  schoolhouses  (also  gym- 
nasia) were  so  built  that  each  schoolhouse  had  a  large  yard 
in  which  a  garden  could  be  planted,  and  as  soon  as  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  reached  15°  teaching  were  done  outdoors,  and 
after  every  half-hour  of  instruction  fifteen  minutes'  play-recess 
were  given.  Such  outdoor  schools  could  be  established  near 
the  cities  during  the  summer,  beginning  in  May,  in  favorable 
weather,  in  the  field,  park  or  in  the  woods. 

The  ideal  thing  would  be,  of  course,  such  country  school 
homes  as  are  established  by  Dr.  Lietz,  where  the  pupils  receive 
instruction  also  in  manual  training,  garden,  and  field  work.  As 
in  this  way  the  physical  health  is  best  devedoped,  it  would  have 
very  favorable  influence  upon  mental  progress.  It  is  only  to  be 
regretted  that  the  high  cost  of  living  in  such  homes  does  not 
permit  their  general  acceptance. 


CHAPTER    LVIII. 

Injury  Caused  by  Examinations,  from  the  Hygienic 
Standpoint,  Particularly  of  the  Exami- 
nation  FOR   Graduation. 

If  a  person  is  living  constantly  in  fear  and  care,  this  has  a 
very  bad  effect  upon  the  condition  of  his  body  and  mind.  That 
the  power  of  his  mental  activity  may  hereby  suffer  very  materi- 
ally is,  after  all  that  we  have  said  in  this  book,  surely  to  be 
assumed.  It  will,  therefore,  be  so  much  harder  for  such  an 
individual  to  undergo  great  mental  strain,  because  through  the 
constant  ideas  of  fear  his  attention  is  deviated  from  the  subject, 
and  this  weakens  his  power  for  taking  notice  of  things.  Such 
is  the  position  of  those  much  to  be  pitied  young  men  who  look 
forward  to  the  difficult  trials  of  the  examinations  for  graduation. 
One  may  be  prepared  ever  so  well,  and  yet  not  be  able  to  get  rid 
of  the  thought  that  some  unforeseen  accident  may  happen  which 
could  play  a  bad  trick  on  him.  With  the  examination  it  is  very 
frequently  the  same  as  with  a  trial  before  court.  One  may  be 
ever  so  positive  of  winning  the  trial,  and  yet  there  is  always  the 
possibility  that  the  capable  lawyer  of  the  opposite  side  may  shoot 
off  some  trick  just  when  presence  of  mind  is  wanted.  And  it  is 
just  that  condition  of  the  nervous  system,  that  mental  state, 
upon  which  most  everj^thing  depends  in  an  examination.  Many 
also  most  able  candidates  are  tortured  with  doubts,  and  if  one 
has  the  misfortune  to  come  from  a  family  predisposed  to  nerv- 
ousness, these  doubts  may  take  such  proportions  that  grave 
mental  disturbances  may  follow.  It  may  even  happen  in  such 
cases  that,  in  families  in  which  mental  diseases  do  occur,  the 
outbreak  of  such  a  disease  is  promoted.  But  even  in  young 
people,  who  were  well-balanced  before,  and  not  at  all  nervous, 
the  excitement  and  strain  may  lead  to  neurasthenia.  In  young 
girl  students,  the  number  of  which  daily  increases,  it  may  come 

(429) 


430  Human  Intelligence. 


to  hysteria,  particularly  if  there  is  a  congenital  disposition.  At 
any  rate,  during  the  months  before  the  so-much-feared  examina- 
tions for  graduation  the  young  folks  are  working  very  hard ;  they 
lose  their  appetite  and  cannot  sleep ;  during  this  time  the  founda- 
tion is  often  laid  for  nervousness  and  for  nervous  diseases  in  gen- 
eral in  previously  entirely  healthy  individuals.  The  much-worried 
parents  and  all  the  rest  of  the  family  also  suffer  with  them.  The 
greatest  danger  lies  in  the  fact  that  all  these  injuries  strike  the 
young  people  at  a  critical  time,  because  the  youthful  body  is  still 
in  the  period  of  development.  And  when  the  matter  is  examined 
more  closely  it  can  be  found  that  the  examination  for  high-school 
graduation  is,  properly  speaking,  not  an  arrangement  which 
could  not  be  dropped.  It  is  just  as  useless  as  examinations  for 
establishing  the  degree  of  knowledge  in  general  are.  If  anyone 
passed  an  examination  well,  it  only  goes  to  prove  that  he  was  at 
a  certain  time  able  to  answer  some  questions  well,  or,  in  the  best 
case,  that  he  was  prepared  at  a  certain  time  in  one  subject;  very 
frequently,  however,  it  shows  that  he  had  much  luck.  One 
could,  moreover,  swear  that  85  per  cent,  of  what  has  been 
learned  for  graduation  will  very  soon  evaporate,  which  is 
entirely  natural.  We  have  already  said  that  a  man  remembers 
only  what  he  has  often  recalled  into  his  memory.  But,  honestly 
speaking,  how  much  of  all  that  stuff,  which  has  been  learned  in 
bloody  sweat,  is  of  any  need  in  future  life?  And  what  a  person 
knows  later  in  life  he  has  not  learned  in  school,  but  by  diligent 
private  studying.  Moreover,  no  one  thinks  of  defending  the 
crazy  idea  that  the  examination  for  high-school  graduation  is 
intended  for  the  purpose  of  learning  useful  knowledge  needed 
in  later  life.  This  examination  is  not  only  useless,  but  super- 
fluous. When  a  teacher  has  had  a  pupil  under  his  observation 
for  years,  and  often  quizzed  him,  every  sensible  man  would  nat- 
urally think  that  the  teacher  should  be  able  to  judge  of  the  extent 
of  that  pupil's  knowledge.  Nothing  betrays  the  mental  state  of 
a  person  so  much  as  a  composition  written  by  him.  If,  then,  a 
pupil  has  written  compositions  for  years,  the  school  faculty. 


Injury  Caused  by  Examination.  431 

unless  it  is  struck  with  blindness,  should  know  whether  the  pupil 
is  mentally  mature  or  not.  Wherefore,  then,  is  it  necessary  to 
play  that  doleful  comedy  of  examination  for  graduation!  At  the 
present  time,  when  in  all  domains  there  is  aroused  the  spirit  of 
rationalism,  when  everywhere  there  are  introduced  hygienic 
arrangements,  not  only  to  heal  diseases,  but  to  prevent  them,  it 
is  certainly  astonishing  that  the  State  supports  with  its  author- 
ity such  institutions  which  depress  so  greatly  the  body  and  mind 
of  the  flower  of  the  nation  upon  which  its  future  depends  and 
injures  its  health  so  badly.  Where  the  struggle  for  existence 
is  so  bitter  in  that  extraordinary  contest  that  it  is  possible  to 
stand  it  only  by  straining  all  available  strength,  a  man  needs 
very  much,  first  of  all,  a  healthy  body,  sound  nerves,  and  a 
healthy  mind.  And  in  this  respect  the  examination  for  gradua- 
tion is,  for  most  pupils,  simply  criminal. 

When  the  military  authorities  introduced  the  requirement 
of  an  examination  for  admission  as  a  one-year  volunteer  it  was 
guided  by  the  desire  to  get  into  the  service  as  soldiers  more 
'intelligent  material.  It  is  most  probable  that  the  same  end  could 
be  obtained  without  this  examination,  which  often  injures  the 
intelligence  very  badly.  What  is  mostly  needed  in  military 
service  is  the  faultless  use  of  the  sensory  organs,  and  I  am  very 
much  in  doubt  whether  the  preparation  for  the  difficult  examina- 
tion is  apt  to  sharpen  these  senses  particularly.  I  am  rather 
more  inclined  to  think  that  it  is  liable  to  do  much  harm  in  that 
respect.  That  the  intelligence  of  the  pupils  is  particularly 
improved  by  these  examinations  can  hardly  be  assumed  when  it 
is  considered  that  the  great  majority  of  the  pupils  manage  to 
acquire  the  greater  part  of  the  extensive  knowledge  required 
only  by  grinding.  And  surely  nobody  would  seriously  defend 
the  idea  that  this  is  likely  to  improve  the  intelligence.  It  is  cer- 
tain, however,  that  the  examination  is  liable  to  injure  very  badly 
the  ingenious  disposition  which  is  so  rarely  found  in  children. 
The  whole  plan  of  the  gymnasium  is  indeed  so  arranged  and 
has  for  its  main  object  to  pass  well  all  that  is  required  in  the 


432  Human  Intelligence. 


examination  for  graduation.  Now,  it  is  a  fact  that  in  a  number 
of  subjects  is  required  not  a  merely  superficial  knowledge,  but  a 
considerably  thorough  one.  (That  much  of  this  has  absolutely 
no  value  for  practical  life  is  very  well  known,  generally.)  If, 
therefore,  a  child  has  particular  gifts  for  some  subjects,  and 
only,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  very  moderate  or  insufficient  ones 
for  others,  it  necessarily  has  to  strain  its  mental  faculties  so 
much  more,  because  the  arrangement  of  the  curriculum  cannot 
be  changed.  As  a  result  the  children  are  liable  to  an  injury  to 
their  nervous  system,  a  breakdown  from  which  they  will  suffer 
all  their  lives.  At  any  rate,  it  is  liable  to  kill  an  ingenious  dis- 
position in  its  very  origin. 

If  those  two  Prussian  professors  who,  at  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  introduced  the  miserable  graduation  exami- 
nation could  only  have  anticipated  how  much  mischief  they 
brought  upon  the  flower  of  the  whole  German  nation,  how  many 
suicides  they  have  caused,  and  if  they  knew  how  many  thousands 
of  families  curse  the  institution  which  they  introduced,  they 
would  surely  turn  in  their  graves. 

The  meaning  of  the  gymnasium  is  supposed  to  be,  as  the 
word  itself  signifies,  a  school  for  exercises.  It  should  develop 
the  talents,  it  should  find  out  the  whole  inborn  potentiality  of 
the  child ;  should  discover  it,  stimulate  it,  and  unfold  it.  As  the 
matter  stands  at  present,  the  gymnasium,  with  its  well-estab- 
lished curriculum,  by  means  of  which  a  single  common  level  is 
established,  without  taking  into  consideration  the  congenital  dis- 
position given  by  nature,  can  only  cultivate  drumming-in  and 
plugging.  It  can  only  bring  into  the  university  a  very  mediocre 
element  which  went  through  the  mill  undamaged,  but  cannot 
bring  the  fatherland  any  geniuses.  Is  it  not  a  rather  startling 
fact  that  after  the  final  examinations  (abiturlentenexamen)  were 
introduced  the  classical  writers  almost  died  out  in  Germany? 
Germany  had  its  great  philosophers  and  classics  at  a  time  before 
the  introduction  of  these  examinations!  Hardly  any  single  one 
of  the  great  classics  had  taken  his  final  examination  in  the  gym- 


Injury  Caused  by  Examination.  433 

nasium.  There  are  also  children  of  genius  horn  today,  hut  their 
individuality  is  destroyed  hy  an  institution  which  puts  them  all 
on  the  same  level  and  ignores  the  elementary  law  that  every  man 
possesses  a  different  potentiality. 


CHAPTER  LIX. 

The  Necessity  of  Educating  Ingenious  Children  of 
THE  Poor  at  the  State's  Expense. 

Among  the  many  thousand  children  who  go  to  school,  those 
with  ingenious  dispositions  are  very  rare.  Everything  which  is 
of  value  in  the  world  is  rare.  This  general  law  in  the  world's 
economy  is  undoubtedly  in  the  interest  of  mankind,  to  stimulate 
the  striving  for  what  is  of  value.  Many  thousands  of  mussel- 
shells  have  to  be  opened  to  find  a  single  pearl,  and  when  among 
thousands  of  children  one  child  of  genius  is  found,  it  must  also 
be  considered  as  a  valuable  pearl.  The  ingeniousness  in  it  must 
be  well  taken  care  of,  so  that  it  will  not  perish ;  it  must  be  found 
out  early  enough  and  an  attempt  must  be  made  to  remove  all 
obstacles  in  its  way. 

Many  perils  menace  the  ingenious  child  of  poor  parents. 
Insufficient  feeding,  as  we  have  already  considered,  may  narrow 
down  his  mental  faculties.  In  a  badly  nourished  body  the  mind 
cannot  well  develop,  and  lack  of  proper  food  often  leads  to  the 
development  of  disease,  which  prevents  mental  development,  and, 
in  addition,  very  often  a  disagreeable  domestic  condition  is 
found,  as  the  result  of  poverty.  Sometimes  potentialities  of 
genius  are  found  among  illegitimate  children,  as  is  seen  from  the 
fact  that  a  number  of  great  men  were  of  that  kind ;  for  instance, 
the  great  scientist,  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam,  the  son  of  a  servant- 
girl,  who  used  to  say  of  himself  that  he  "was  not  the  fruit  of  a 
monotonous  matrimony."  So,  also,  was  the  great  artist  Leo- 
nardo da  Vinci,  The  great  mathematician  D'Alembert  was 
found  as  an  illegitimate  child  set  out  on  the  steps  of  the  Church 
St.  Jean  le  Rond,  in  Paris,  It  would  be  a  crime  against  all  man- 
kind if  ingeniously  disposed  children  were  left  to  perish,  because 
the  whole  of  humanity  is  under  obligation  to  men  of  genius  and 
their  discoveries.  And  just  now,  when  we  live  in  the  time  of 
(434) 


Educating  Ingenious  Children.  435 

mediocrity  (one  of  the  reasons  for  it  we  mentioned  in  Chapter 
LVIII),  such  rare  plants  should  b^  fostered  and  well  taken  care 
of. 

How  hard  poverty  presses  upon  such  children  and  obstructs 
their  further  development,  or  makes  it  entirely  impossible,  we 
learn  from  a  number  of  examples.  Hebbel  had  to  suffer  great 
deprivations  during  his  childhood  and  youth,  and  these  have 
weighed  heavily  upon  his  mental  productions  like  a  black  cloud. 
I  would  be  the  last  not  to  recognize  the  great  value  of  poverty 
as  a  stimulation  of  ambition  and  industriousness,  because  I  had 
experience  of  it  myself  during  my  student  days,  and  have  appre- 
ciated it  as  a  helping  factor  in  this,  as  well  as  in  my  other  book. 
It  is,  however,  certain  that  the  poor,  ingenious  young  men  are 
prevented,  just  on  account  of  their  poverty,  from  devoting  them- 
selves entirely  to  their  favorite  occupation,  to  their  studies, 
because  they  must  at  the  same  time  earn  a  living  for  themselves. 
As  I  had  to  do  tutoring  since  my  boyhood  days  to  support  myself, 
and  had  to  pursue  my  studying  at  the  university  under  the  same 
'Condition,  I  know  myself  how  little  time  there  is  then  left  over 
to  follow  favorite  studies!  Such  distractions  as  cares  of  life 
surely  very  often  may  (but  not  always  must)  have  an  unfavor- 
able effect  upon  a  congenitally  ingenious  disposition.  It  must 
further  be  taken  into  consideration  that,  as  Jean  Paul  Richter  so 
strikingly  said : — 

"While  it  is  true  that  want  is  the  mother  of  arts,  it  is  also 
true  that  at  the  same  time  it  is  the  grandmother  of  vice." 

I  would  lay  particularly  great  stress  on  this  danger  faced 
by  early-matured,  ingenious  children  if  they  happen  to  get  in  the 
wrong  environment.  Just  as  such  children  are  liable  to  mature 
into  great  men  under  proper  guidance,  so  there  is  a  danger  that 
under  the  influence  of  forced  want  and  bad  example  they  may 
develop  into  great  criminals.  This  statement  is  supported  by 
examples  which  are  not  rare.  Emile  Deschanel  is  undoubtedly 
entirely  right  when,  in  his  "Physiologie  des  Ecrivains,"  he 
advances  the  assumption  that  it  is  possible  to  say  of  a  man  what 


436  Human  Intelligence. 


and  who  he  is,  if  it  is  known  what  his  environment  was  during 
his  youth  and  how  he  was  brought  up. 

Such  ingenious  children  must,  therefore,  first  of  all,  be 
removed  from  the  endangering  environment.  And  it  must  be 
the  sacred  duty  of  the  State  to  find  out  such  precious  ones,  to 
maintain  them,  and  have  them  educated  for  the  common  wel- 
fare. It  means  to  cut  out  of  the  rough  precious  stone  a  glisten- 
ing diamond. 

Illegitimate  children  are  very  often  bom  under  better 
eugenic  conditions  than  the  offspring  of  lawfully  married  pa- 
rents. They  are  often  the  fruit  of  a  love  affair,  and  the,  condi- 
tions of  free  sexual  selection  are  here  better  kept  than  in  lawful 
marriages,  where  social  position  and  wealth  are  often  the  only 
deciding  factors.  I  must  express  here  my  regret  that  the  State 
is  so  near-sighted  as  to  allow  extraordinary  good  human  material 
to  go  to  ruin  by  permitting  that  children  born  in  the  foundling 
asylums  should  be  brought  to  the  coimtry  and  given  to  peasant 
foster-mothers.  There  they  often  enough  perish  in  poverty  and 
misery,  die  very  early,  or,  as  if  in  revenge  for  the  miserliness 
of  the  State,  become  criminals  and  alcoholics,  and  thus  cause  the 
State  damage  a  hundredfold.  Would  the  State,  which  keeps  a 
controlling  eye  on  the  peasants'  horses,  so  as  to  bei  in  a  position 
to  requisition  them  in  case  of  war,  permit  such  a  blundering  with 
the  horses'  colts  as  is  the  case  with  its  most  precious  possession, 
the  human  child? 

If  the  State  understood  its  business,  it  would  make  a 
selection  among  these  children,  would  have  them  thoroughly 
examined,  would  also  have  their  mothers  examined,  and  when 
the  condition  of  the  body  and  mind  is  found  intact,  would  take 
such  children  under  its  own  control,  put  them  in  specially  out- 
fitted institutions,  would  foster  and  take  good  care  of  them,  and 
bring  them  up  to  become  useful  citizens  of  the  State.  It  would 
further  attend  to  it  that  the  authorities  should  be  informed  of 
every  case  of  a  child  with  ingenious  gifts.  This  could  be  done  by 
the  teachers  in  the  kindergartens  where  a  well-manifested  talent 


Educating  Ingenious  Children.  437 

can  be  discovered  by  the  sensory  exercises  according  to  the  Mon- 
tessori  system,  or  by  the  teachers  of  the  public  schools.  At  the  en- 
trance examinations  for  the  gymnasium,  a  State  committee  should 
be  present,  and  in  case  the  intelligence  test,  which  we  have  before 
suggested,  should  show  a  striking  ingenious  ability,  and  the  pa- 
rents are  very  poor,  the  State  should  take  over  such  children  for 
education.  Gifted  poor  children  should,  at  any  rate,  be  freed 
from  all  school  fees,  and  books  and  other  school  paraphernalia 
given  to  them  by  the  State.  The  same  care  should  be  taken  of 
ingenious  university  students.  Unfortunately,  the  State  re- 
sources are  not  sufficient  for  such  purposes.  The  necessity  of 
supporting  a  large  army  does  not  permit  the  State  such  expenses, 
and,  therefore,  private  benefactors  should  take  a  hand  in  it.  It 
is  hardly  possible  to  think  of  any  more  charitable  purpose  than 
making  it  possible  to  maintain  and  educate  poor,  ingenious  chil- 
dren, to  make  serviceable  to  all  mankind  the  powers  slumbering 
in  them.  The  production  of  a  genius  benefits  not  only  small  com- 
munities, but  the  whole  of  humanity.  Considering  the  fact  that 
nobody  can  take  his  money  along  with  him  into  the  grave,  it 
were  a  very  noble  deed  if  wealthy  testators  would  found  legacies 
for  such  purposes.  Many  a  man  may  have  committed  during 
his  life  something  wrong  against  his  fellow-man  for  which  he 
would  like  to  atone  before  he  dies.  It  is  well  to  remember  an 
old  saying,  which  I  saw  engraved  on  a  centuries-old  altarstone 
on  exhibition  in  the  courtyard  of  the  municipal  building  at  Eger. 
It  read:  "Secret  donations  pacify  the  Lord's  anger."  Gifts 
made  on  the  death-bed  will  surely  not  be  counted  for  less!  To 
support  by  all  possible  means  a  poor,  ambitious  boy  endowed 
with  the  gifts  of  a  genius  should  constitute  the  duty  of  every 
fair-thinking  man  in  general!  It  is  lamentable  that  so  many 
poor  students  of  great  talents  at  the  university  should  perish  in 
poverty  and  misery  because  there  is  nobody  to  give  them  a  lift. 
There  are  foundations  for  so  many  charitable  purposes,  but  none 
for  perfecting  poor,  ingenious  children.  Such  a  foundation  is, 
therefore,  urgently  needed.     If  we  look  over  the  ranks  of  the 


438  Human  Intelligence. 

great,  ingenious  men  through  centuries  we  would  only  rarely  find 
one  who  had  to  suffer  deprivation  and  go  hungry  during  his 
youth.  It  is  remarkable  that  most  of  these  men,  except  probably 
the  artists,  come  from  the  middle  class  or  from  the  higher, 
wealthy  class.  Only  a  few  of  the  world's  famous  geniuses  came 
of  poor  parents,  and  even  these  (I  want  to  emphasize  this  par- 
ticularly) had  not  suffered  want.  Napoleon's  mother  was  very 
poor  and  blessed  with  children,  but  he  was  educated  in  the  mili- 
tary academy  at  the  State  expense,  and  thus  was  at  least  free  of 
the  cares  of  life.  The  greatest  botanist  of  the  world,  Linne,  to 
whom  the  present  state  of  botany  and  probably  part  of  zoology 
is  due,  would  have  surely  amounted  to  nothing  if  the  physician, 
Dr.  Rothmann,  in  Vexsio,  in  Smaland,  had  not  discovered  his 
ingenious  gift,  had  not  educated  him  himself,  and  helped  him  to 
the  university.  If  it  had  not  been  for  that  philanthropist,  Linne 
would  have  been  lost  to  science.  Because  he  did  not  get  along 
in  Latin  and,  therefore,  could  not  become  a  theologian,  his  father 
put  him  as  an  apprentice  to  a  shoemaker.  Dr.  Rothmann  has 
done  a  great  favor,  not  only  to  Sweden,  but  to  the  whole  world. 
Unfortunately,  however,  our  sober,  cold  times  lack  men  like 
Rothmann.  Also  Kepler,  one  of  the  greatest  astronomers  of  the 
world,  would  have  become  a  cowherd,  if  his  grandfather  had 
not  gotten  for  him  a  free  scholarship  in  the  monastery  school  at 
Hischan,  because  he  was  not  fit  to  be  a  soldier — which  was  the 
intention  of  his  father,  who  was  a  corporal  in  Wurtemberg — on 
account  of  his  weakness.  Throughout  his  whole  life  this  great 
man,  who  was  persecuted  by  his  coreligionists  because  he  stood 
up  for  the  introduction  of  the  calendar  improved  by  Pope 
Gregory  XIII,  was  pursued  by  want  and  misery  and  thus  Kast- 
ner  could  justly  say  about  him : — 

"No  mortal  had  ever  climbed  so  high 
As  Kepler  rose,  and  died  in  starvation. 
He  only  knew  how  to  amuse  the  minds; 
So  the  bodies  left  him  without  bread." 


CHAPTER   LX. 

Biographies  of  Great  Men  as  an  Obligatory  Subject 
OF  Instruction  in  Our  Schools. 

The  object  of  the  high  school  is  not  to  drum  in  much  exact 
knowledge  in  all  the  branches.  It  should  rather  awaken  the 
desire  to  study  and  by  all  possible  means  stimulate  the  pupils  to 
greater  application  in  that  subject  to  which  they  intend  to  devote 
themselves  in  future  life.  Pupils  can  be  spurred  on  to  greater 
diligence  by  being  given  examples  of  how  some  children  rose 
from  modest  circumstances,  and  by  iron  diligence  and  persever- 
ance became  famous  men.  The  inborn  talent  is  not  all  that  is 
needed,  for  only  by  great  diligence  can  a  genius  become  devel- 
oped. One  may  come  into  the  world  with  potential  ingenuity, 
but  a  genius  must  not  only  have  the  inborn  power  of  imagina- 
tion, but  also  much  power  of  judgment.  Considering  that  the 
latter  has  to  be  acquired,  it  is  obvious  that  much  studying  is 
necessary ;  one  must  see  and  hear  much  to  gain  as  much  experi- 
ence as  possible,  and  then  utilize  this  experience  in  forming  con- 
clusions. 

What  is  genius,  first  of  all,  but  iron  diligence  and  per- 
severance, full  devotion  to  the  subject  with  which  one  is  en- 
gaged, penetrating  deep  into  it,  highest  concentration  to  one 
point.  Mozart  was  such  a  genius,  and  even  during  his  childhood 
he  demonstrated  that  he  never  applied  himself  to  anything  only 
halfway,  but  devoted  himself  to  it  body  and  soul.  When  the 
little  Mozart  learned  arithmetic,  all  tables,  chairs,  walls,  and  even 
the  floors  in  the  house  were  covered  with  figures  written  with 
chalk.  W^hen  Isaac  Newton  was  asked  how  he  made  his  dis- 
coveries, he  answered  :  "By  continuously  thinking  of  them."  As 
a  model  of  the  many  great  men  who  distinguished  themselves 
by  their  diligence  and  perseverance  we  may  mention  Alexander 

(439) 


440  Human  Intelligence. 


von  Humboldt,  who  had  the  habit  for  many  years  of  getting  up 
in  the  morning  at  4  o'clock  and  working  until  late  at  night. 
Euler  was  so  diligent  that  for  almost  twenty-five  years  he  pub- 
lished a  mathematical  contribution  every  week.  And  the  great 
Dutch  physician,  Swammerdam,  worked  for  six  years  over  the 
anatomy  of  the  frog. 

Buffon,  the  great  naturalist,  according  to  his  own  statement, 
spent  fifty  years  at  his  desk  and  filled  thirty-six  large  quarto 
volumes  with  his  knowledge.  According  to  Buffon,  genius  is 
nothing  else  but  "longue  [much]  patience,"  and  it  is  to  this  patient 
searching  and  inquiry  that  most  geniuses  owe  the  discoveries  and 
inventions  which  made  them  world-famous.  This  we  see,  for 
instance,  in  the  founder  of  protective  vaccination  against  small- 
pox, Edward  Jenner,  who  later  became  Sir  Edward.  He  was  a 
plain  apprentice  to  a  surgeon  in  Sudbury,  near  Bristol,  when,  in 
the  course  of  a  conversation,  a  girl  made  the  remark  that  she 
was  not  afraid  of  smallpox  because  she  had  already  had  the  cow- 
pox.  This  remark  struck  Jenner,  and  he  thought  over  it  a  long 
time,  the  idea  keeping  him  busy  continually,  so  that  his  colleagues 
laughed  at  him  for  his  obsession.  For  twenty-five  years  he  col- 
lected evidence  on  this  point,  until  he  was  certain  about  the  mat- 
ter, and  had  vaccinated  his  own  son  three  times  without  any  bad 
results.  Then  he  came  out  publicly  with  a  paper,  but  he  was 
mocked  at.  Those  in  high  positions  made  a  laughing-stock  of 
this  unknown  country  physician,  and  it  was  only  after  enduring 
much  opposition  that  his  idea  conquered  the  whole  world,  saving 
innumerable  people  from  the  terrible  disease  of  smallpox.  In 
addition  to  being  created  a  knight,  Jenner' s  discovery  brought 
him  national  gifts  of  10,000  and  20,000  pounds,  and,  what 
is  worth  still  more  than  all  the  money,  his  name  became  im- 
mortal as  the  discoverer  of  cowpox  vaccination  and  as  a  bene- 
factor of  humanity.  Geniuses  are  not  often  so  fortunate  as- 
Jenner,  but  must  often  enough  travel  a  hard  road.  When  they 
announce  a  discovery,  first  it  is  ignored,  then  it  is  laughed  at, 
and  then,  again,  opposed.    At  last  it  is  recognized,  but  in  that 


Studying  Biographies  of  Great  Men.  441 

case  priority  is  denied  to  them.  Only  after  they  have  died  in 
misery  and  have  been  dead  perhaps  one  hundred  years  thankful 
posterity  erects  a  monument  to  their  memory! 

The  biographies  of  the  great  traveller  Livingstone,  and  of 
the  great  inventor  Stephenson,  could  also  serve  the  children  as 
brilliant  examples  of  great  diligence,  and  at  the  same  time  stim- 
ulate poor  pupils  to  persevere  in  spite  of  poverty,  in  the  hope 
that  by  their  diligence  and  never-ceasing  patience  they  will  some 
day  reach  an  honorable  position  in  life,  and  may  acquire  for 
themselves  a  name  to  be  praised  by  men  of  all  nations.  To  such 
poor  young  men  the  present  offers  only  suffering  and  depriva- 
tion; one  should,  therefore,  give  them  sunrays  of  hope  for  the 
future,  and  incite  their  courage  and  diligence.  Hope  for  a  better 
future  could  be  awakened  in  so  many  despondent  young  men  in 
their  gloomy  days — ^hope  for  a  better  future — by  relating  some 
of  the  singularly  brilliant  examples  in  the  world's  history.  So, 
for  instance,  the  life-history  of  Napoleon  (whose  mother  and 
sisters  lived  in  such  deep  poverty  in  Marseilles  that  they  had  to 
do  washing  for  others)  who,  out  of  deepest  poverty,  by  his 
high  intelligence  and  energy,  rose  to  be  a  ruler  of  the  powerful 
rich.  One  could  also  call  attention  to  the  example  of  some  of 
his  marshals,  such  as  Bernadotte,  or  to  Abraham  Lincoln,  who, 
from  a  poor  boy,  became  the  president  of  the  greatest  republic 
in  the  world. 

Attention  could  be  called  to  great  men  in  all  domains;  to 
great  thinkers,  philosophers,  inventors,  composers,  painters, 
great  physicians,  and,  to  be  entirely  modern,  to  great  business 
men,  who,  as  self-made  men,  have  worked  themselves  up  by 
their  diligence  and  ability  from  poor  boys  to  highly  respected 
positions.  A  special  textbook  should  be  written  containing  the 
life-histories  of  these  great  men,  and  the  professor  of  history  or 
literature  should  lecture  about  it  one  or  two  hours  every  week. 
An  inspiring,  beautiful  lecture  would  be  of  highest  educational 
value,  and  by  enumerating  the  noble  features  which  are  so  often 
encountered  in  great  men  the  inner  perfection  of  the  pupils  could 


442  Human  Intelligence. 


be  promoted.  One  of  the  main  objects  of  the  school  is  indeed 
supposed  to  be  education,  and  the  bringing  of  the  pupils  up  to 
an  ideal  way  of  thinking,  and  to  prevent  them  from  becoming 
cold  materialists.  The  life-histories  of  so  many  ingenious  men, 
who,  by  their  work  and  activity,  by  their  discoveries  and  inven- 
tions, became  the  benefactors  of  mankind,  could  serve  as  good 
examples.  The  work  of  a  true  genius  is  due  to  the  impulse 
within  him,  and  not  to  the  prospective  remuneration.  Geniuses 
are  driven  to  their  accomplishments  b}^  an  inner  impulse  of  which 
they  are  themselves  unconscious.  A  genius  is,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  an  idealist.  There  can  hardly  be  any  higher  object 
of  the  middle  schools  than  to  develop  in  the  pupils  an  ideal 
nucleus,  to  make  of  them  altruists ;  and  to  this  end  the  study  of 
biographies  of  many  great  men  can  contribute  very  materially. 
In  this  way  they  receive  an  inner  support  which  protects  them 
in  all  changes  of  life,  and  supports  them  in  bad  hours  of  tempta- 
tion from  deviating  from  the  right  track.  Genius  represents  the 
highest  intelligence,  and  at  the  same  time  it  is  the  highest  ideal- 
ism; highest  intelligence  and  highest  idealism  are  consequently 
paired  together.  If,  however,  with  highest  intelligence  is  asso- 
ciated ideal  thinking,  altruism  is  the  result.  An  altruistic 
individual,  on  the  other  hand,  cannot  commit  any  crime  Unless 
he  has  lost  his  mind.  A  criminal  is,  indeed,  as  a  rule,  a  real 
materialist.  I  may,  therefore,  justly  put  high  intelligence  and 
crime  in  contrast  to  one  another,  because  an  unintelligent  man  is 
kept  away  from  bad  deeds  by  the  thought  of  the  bad  conse- 
quences to  which  they  may  lead.  Spinoza  was  right  when  he 
said :    "Vices  are  errors  of  the  mind." 

From  all  that  has  been  said,  it  follows  that  the  development 
of  intelligence  by  means  of  school  education  protects  against 
crime,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  crimes  are  performed  most 
frequently  by  those  of  low  intelligence,  by  idiots,  the  feeble- 
minded of  various  grades,  and  alcoholics.  They  lack  two  bar- 
riers against  crime : — 

I.     Will-power. 


Studying  Biographies  of  Great  Men.  443 

2.  Intelligence  (contemplation  of  all  possible  consequences 
of  crime). 

Considering  that  in  many  pupils,  even  when  of  better  lin- 
eage, there  is  always  a  possibility  of  the  presence  of  a  hereditary 
foundation  for  a  tendency  to  dO'  something  bad,  it  should  be 
worked  against  by  the  study  of  noble  characters  which  would 
help  to  form  a  noble  spirit.  By  the  good  effect  of  examples  of 
the  great  diligence  of  these  men,  the  inclination  to  idleness,  one 
of  the  main  causes  of  crime,  would  be  eliminated.  The  old 
Dutch  Vater  Katz  w^as  perfectly  right  in  saying  that  idleness  is 
the  mother  of  sin  and  the  stepmother  of  virtue.  An  altruistic 
education  would,  therefore,  be  promoted  by  obligatory  instruc- 
tion in  biographies  of  great  men,  particularly  if  it  would  be 
shown  by  the  examples  that  they  have  not  been  guided  by  self- 
ishness, and  could  not  be  kept  away  from  the  right  track  by 
the  mean  ingratitude  of  their  fellow-men.  Their  examples  teach 
us  in  general  how  often  they  were  denied  worldly  goods,  and 
also  the  recognition  of  their  fellow-men  for  whom  they  had 
sacrificed  themselves.  Bechstein  was  perfectly  right  in  complain- 
ing that  laurel  crowns  are  only  plaited  around  dead  scalps.  And 
in  our  short,  earthly,  life  it  amounts  to  very  little  whether  the 
seed  sprouts  in  a  few  years  or  after  a  generation,  if  only  many 
generations  of  men  are  benefi.ted  by  it.  It  would  be  the  greatest 
benefit  of  an  altruistic  education  if  the  pupils  could  be  taught 
that  it  should  be  the  highest  aim  of  man  so  to  live  that  the  name 
left  after  death  would  be  honored  by  everybody ;  that  good  deeds 
never  remain  without  reward,  but  that  the  inner  joy  and  satisfac- 
tion over  a  good  deed  which  one  was  privileged  to  do  is  a  suffi- 
cient one. 

Steadfastness  could  also  be  mentioned  during  the  instruc- 
tion in  such  principles  and  maxims.  The  never-shaken  courage 
of  many  great  men,  and  Shakespeare's  expression  that  "he  who 
does  not  dare  to  climb  the  shaking  ladder,  should  continue  to 
crawl  courageously  upon  the  floor,"  must  act  inspiringly.  Such 
men  are  truly  not  lacking  in  the  history  of  the  world.    For  heroic 


444  Human  Intelligence. 


steadfastness,  for  never  shirking  the  greatest  difficulties  and  dan- 
gers, for  the  patient  bearing  of  misfortunes  and  privations  and 
fiery  love  for  the  fatherland,  an  instructive  example  is  the 
Swedish  hero,  King  Karl  XII.  In  spite  of  many  failings,  Karl 
was  very  sympathetic;  he  was  also  very  gifted  in  the  realm  of 
science,  particularly  in  mathematics,  and  was  well  deserving  the 
following  song  of  praise  which,  in  his  very  beautiful  mother 
tongue,  Bishop  Esaias  von  Tegner  dedicates  to  him : — 

I  met  och  motgang  Hcka 

Sin  lyckas  ofverman; 
Han  kunde  inte  vika, 

Blot  falla  kunde  han. 


(Alike  both   in   luck   and   misfortune, 

And  always  master  of  his  fate; 
Never  could  he  retreat, 
Only  fall  could  he.) 


IKDEX. 


Abelard,  88. 

Absent-mindedness,  297,  381. 

Abyssinians,  225. 

Acetic  acid,  31. 

Acetone,  31,  49. 

Acromegaly,  30,  68,  158. 

Addison's  disease,  32. 

Adenoids,  46,  208. 

Adrenal,  32. 

Adrenalin,  139. 

Akbar,  80. 

Age,  influence  upon  intelligence,  74. 

Albertone,  28. 

Alcohol,  7,  113,  115,  191. 

Alt  and  Hoppe,  189. 

Altitude,  212. 

Ammonia,  134,  227. 

Ampere,  201,  300,  396,  399,  409. 

Amyl  nitrate,  227. 

Anemia,  109. 

Antipyrin,  136. 

Apathy,  249. 

Arabs,  225. 

Arago,  201,  402. 

Archimedes,  269. 

Aristotle,  4,  200. 

Arteriosclerosis,    75,     133,     155,    203, 

229. 
Art  needlework,  training  in,  422. 
Aschaffenburg,  141. 
Asher,  36. 
Aspirin,  226. 
Aztecs,  302. 

Bach,  70. 

Bacon,  201,  394,  397,  399. 

Baldwin,  166. 

Basedow's  disease,  25,  48,  126,  170. 

Basques,  302. 

Baudelaire,  275. 

Bechstein,  443. 

Bedard,  37. 

Bedouins,  225, 


Beethoven,  70,  78,  204. 

Berger,  79,  208. 

Bernhardt,  Sarah,  99. 

Bermouilli,  399. 

Bethe,  249. 

Binet,  326,  419. 

Binswanger,  187. 

Biographies,   as  an   obligatory  study, 

439. 
Bleeding,  for  headache,  134. 
Bloch,  95. 

Blood  circulation,  in  the  brain,   1,  6, 
10,  12. 

in  fainting,  12. 

in  fever,  1. 

in  headache,  133. 

in  thinking,  4,  8,  13. 

improvement  of,  202. 
Blood,  albumin,  60. 

formation,  36,  218. 

loss  of,  8. 

pressure,  13,  229. 

viscosity  of,  13. 
Blum,  35. 

Boerhaave,  194,  197,  202,  403., 
Bolton,  11,  243,  251. 
Bolyai,  300. 

Bonheur,  Rosa,  99,  104. 
Bonhoeffer,  120. 
Brain,  cortex  of,  248. 

fatigue,  140. 

white  and  gray  substance,  248. 
Braun,  42. 

Bridgman,  Laura,  268. 
Brodmann,  248. 
Bromides,  effect  of,  9,  227. 
Bruno,  281. 
Bruns,  206. 
Byron,  195. 


Cajal,  251. 
Calcium,  232. 


(445) 


446 


Index. 


Campbell,  254. 

Carbohydrates,  360. 

Carbonic  acid  bath,  169. 

Carlyle,  194,  275. 

Castration,  influence  of,  20. 

Charcot,  12. 

Children,  school  education  of.  111. 

Chlorosis,  109. 

Cirrhosis  of  the  liver,  34. 

Clavius,  411. 

Climacterium,  21. 

Climate,  influence  upon  thinking,  62. 

Coffee,  7,  228. 

Common  sense,  263. 

Comparative  method,  370. 

Compulsion  in  education,  366. 

Condorcet,  300. 

Congestion  of  the  eyes,  133. 

Constipation,  110. 

Copernicus,  396. 

Corday,  Charlotte,  5. 

Cramer,  418. 

Crantz,  59. 

Cretinism,  23,  178. 

Criticism,  85. 

Cromwell,  72i. 

Curriculum,  in  high  schools,  412. 

Cuvier,  408. 

Cyon,  Z6. 

D'Alembert,  434. 

Dalch,  23. 

Darwin,  58,  71,  283. 

Davidenko,  207. 

Davos,  217. 

Davy,   Humphry,   196,  396,  401,  407, 

409. 
Decroly,  2iZ2i. 
Degaud,  ZZZ. 
Dellatre,  216. 
Dementia  paralytica,  156. 

prjecox,  19. 
Demoor,  250. 
Depression,  10. 
Descartes,   6,  87,   194,   197,  201,  281, 

324,  393,  395. 
Diabetes,  49. 
Diet,  203. 


Diligence,  381. 

Dizziness,  229. 

Donaldson,  253. 

Dream,  7,  256. 

Drinking-water,   as   cause   of   goiter, 

183. 
Drugs,  226. 

Ductless    glands,    factors    in    inheri- 
tance, 67. 

causes  of  intelligence,  265. 

influence  upon  thinking,  16. 
Dullness,  organotherapeutics  in,  374. 
Dunoyer,  101. 
Diirig,  239. 
Duse,  99. 
Duval,  289. 
Dwight,  245. 

Ebert,  325. 
Edinger,  287. 
Edmunds,  28. 
Education,  object  of,  321. 

mental,  of  children,  364, 
Ehrlich,  231. 
Eiselsberg,  25. 
Eliot,  104. 
Emotion,  6. 
Engadine,  219. 

Eosinophilia  in  senile  dementia,  33. 
Epilepsy,  186. 
Eppinger,  27. 
Erasmus,  281,  403,  434. 
Erb,  215. 
Esquimaux,  59. 
Ethiopians,  302. 
Euler,  141,  201,  395. 
Exaltation,  10. 

maniacal,  2,  3. 
Excursions,  value  of,  372. 
Extracts  of  animal  organs,  233. 

Falta,  29. 

Faltz,  36. 

Faraday,  201,  384,  396,  409. 

Fassin,  2>7. 

Fever,  effect  upon  mentality,  1. 

effect  upon  brain  cortex,  1. 
Fischer,  Z2)3. 
Flatau,  137. 


Index. 


447 


Flechsig,  253. 

Food,  for  mental  workers,  356. 

for  musicians,  361. 

for  school-children,  389. 
Foreign  languages,  studying  of,  347, 
414. 

as  a  means  to  develop  intelligence, 
354. 
Forgetting,  318. 
Fournier,  146. 
Frank,  3. 
Franklin,  87. 

Frederick  the  Great,  210. 
Frohme  and  Hoppe,  188. 
Fiirbinger,  95. 

Galileo,  87,  395,  406. 
Gall,  293. 
Galton,  70. 
Galvani,  65,  200, 
Garnier,  Z7,  231. 
Gauss,  201,  395. 
Geniuses,  64 
Gibbon,  6,  283. 
Gibson,  31. 
Gladstone,  76. 
Goethe,  85,  275,  409. 
Goiter,  181. 
Goldoni,  196. 
Golgi,  251,  290. 
Goltz,  242. 

Grammar,  study  of,  349. 
Graphology,  257. 

Great  men  who  were  sickly  children, 
393. 

who  were  eager  readers,  398. 

who  were  bad  pupils,  406. 
Grossglich,  245. 
Guye,  46,  209,  386. 

Habits,  treatment  of  bad,  320, 

Hagenbeck,  364. 

Haig,  51. 

Haller,  201,  379,  393,  397,  399,  403. 

Hausemann,  245. 

Haydn,  70. 

Headache,  42,  229. 

influence    upon    thinking, 
132. 


Hebbel,  365,  435. 

Hegel,  164,  210. 

Hektoen,  216. 

Helmholtz,  395,  396,  401,  406. 

Helmont,  281,  285. 

Henri,  326. 

Herder,  283. 

Hereditary  predisposition,  10. 

Heredity,  influence  upon  thinking,  67. 

Herschel,  71,  395. 

Hertoghe,  26,  176,  234,  Z77,  387. 

Huygens,  396. 

Humboldt,  Alexander,  283, '332,  395, 

397. 
Hygienic  means,  190 
Hyperthyroiditis,  26. 
Hypothyroiditis,  27,  48,  157. 
Hyrtl,  5,  206,  336. 
Hysteria,  161. 

Impulses,  controlling  of,  320. 
Inflammation,  influence  upon  mental- 
ity, 9. 
Insanity,  causes  and  prevention,  105, 
Insomnia,  disturbing  memory,  313, 
Instincts,  323. 
Instruction,  rational,  335. 
Intelligence,  signs  of,  265. 
Iodine,  153,  229. 

Jaueregg,  55,  181,  237,  ?>6G. 
Jenner,  440, 

Kafeman,  46. 

Kant,  47,  65,  86,  210,  275,  339,  341, 

384,  395,  397,  409. 
Karo,  168. 
Kastner,  395, 
Katz,  443. 
Keller,  Helen,  268. 
Keppler,  201. 
Key  and  Retzius,  41. 
Kish,  35. 
Klapproth,  406. 
Kobler,  69. 
Koch,  Robert,  397. 
Kocher,  54. 

Korsakow's  disease,  150, 
Kowalewska,  246,  407. 


448 


Index. 


Kraemer,  325. 
Kraepelin,  120,  141. 

Lagny,  300. 
Laignel,  33. 
Laplace,  395. 
Laquer,  215. 
Lautz,  67. 
Lavater,  266. 
Laziness,  381. 
Learning,  compulsory,  326. 
methods  of,  329. 
influence  of  age  upon,  331. 
Lecithin,  54. 
Lecturing,  rational,  335. 
Lehmann,  143,  294. 
Leibnitz,  6,  87,  194,  201,  281,  339. 
Lenau,  148. 
Lepine,  289. 
Leppmann,  420. 
Leysin,  212. 
I  euwenhoek,  12. 
Liebig,  401,  406. 
Lietz,  372,  428. 
Light,  influence  of,  218. 
Lime  metabolism,  15,  52. 
Lincoln,  399,  441. 
Linne,  194,  281,  396,  410. 
Livingstone,  441. 
Localization  in  the  brain,  253. 
Locke,  194,  197,  281,  369,  394,  397,  411. 
Loisel,  93. 

Lombroso,  66,  69,  219,  272,  291. 
Longevity  of  great  men,  393. 
Lorand,  1,  29,  33,  35,  41,  48,  50,  67, 

98,  116,  126,  157,  171,  202,  215, 

217,  228,  237. 
Loyola,  Ignatius,  143. 
Lugaro,  34. 

Malgat,  216. 
Malpighi,  12,  65. 
Manual  training,  422. 
Marce,  2. 
Mark,  31. 
Markart,  148. 
Marriage,  112. 
Masturbation,  95. 
Mayer,  Robert,  283,  407. 


Memory,  263. 

associative,  299. 

conditions  required  for,  294. 

cytological  basis  of,  249,  287. 

dependence    on    circulation    in   the 
brain,  290,  310. 

facilitating,  313. 

importance  of  thyroid  for,  312. 

mechanism  of,  286. 

recitative,  293. 

sharp  fixation  for,  304. 

systematic  development  of,  286. 

weak,  307. 
Mendel,  190. 
Meran,  217. 
Metabolism,  48. 
Meumann,  325,  332. 
Meyer,  115. 
Meyerbeer,  282. 
Meynert,  12. 
Migraine,    influence    upon    thinking, 

132. 
Milton,  65. 
Mingazzini,  92. 
Moebius,  86,  148,  165,  245. 
Mohammed,  283. 
Moltke,  77. 
Monakow,  242,  245. 
Monge,  395,  396. 

Montessori,  261,  277,  371,  418,  423. 
Morse,  130. 
Morel,  2. 

Morphium,  effects  of,  9. 
Mott,  68. 

Mozart,  70,  73,  78,  196,  396,  439. 
Miiller,  214. 
Munk,  252. 
Myxedema,  25,  126,  157,  173,  387. 

Napoleon,  47,  72,  196,  210,  275,  411, 

438. 
Nasal  chambers,   influence  upon  cir- 
culation in  the  brain,  39. 

bleeding,  40,  133. 

secretion,  42,  134. 
Nathusius,  401. 
Nerve  cells,  11. 
Nervousness,  161. 
Neuburger,  247. 


Index. 


449 


Neurasthenia,  94,  161. 

Newton,   197,  265,  268,  275,  339,  394, 

395,  397,  411,  439. 
Nietzsche,  148,  257,  308. 
Nitroglycerin,  139. 
Nizza,  217,  233. 
Noorden,  109. 

Obesity,  endogenous,  48. 
Oliver,  36. 
Onanism,  89,  92. 
Open  air,  205. 
Oppenheim,  162. 
Osteomalacia,  53. 
Overstrain,  mental,  140. 

Pascal,  78,  87,  201,  395,  399,  404. 

Pasteur,  201. 

Peck,  168. 

Perez,  82. 

Perrando,  25. 

Peters,  70. 

Phagocytosis,  37. 

Phantasia,  64,  85. 

Phenacetin,  136. 

Phosphorus  metabolism,  15,  35,  52. 

Physiognomy,  science  of,  266. 

Pick,  206. 

Piler,  37. 

Pineles,  29,  33.  ; 

Plinius,  403. 

Plonnies,  312. 

Pope,  394. 

Potassium  iodide,  45. 

Progressive  paralysis,  138,  146. 

Proportion,  perception  of,  259. 

Punishment,  111,  364. 

Pyramidin,  136. 

Querton,  250. 
Quincey,  305. 
Quinine,  139. 

Rabl-Ruckhardt,  289. 
Rachel,  99. 

Radosawljewitsch,  333. 
Ranke,  12. 
Raphael,  99. 


Ranschburg,  313. 

Reading,  advantage  of  much,  398. 

Recreation,  144. 

Reddy,  372. 

Regaud,  92. 

Rembrandt,  73,  99. 

Reschnikow,  207. 

Retzius,  245. 

Rheumatism,  221. 

Ribot,  305,  308. 

Richter,  215. 

Riviera,  217,  223. 

Roger,  37. 

Rolleston,  246. 

Rosenow,  216. 

Rossini,  6. 

Romberg,  230. 

Rothmann,  438. 

Rousseau,  2,  86,  204,  282,  384,  409. 

Rudinger,  29. 

Ruediger,  216. 

Rush,  305. 

Ruysch,  12. 

Salicylates,  136,  226. 
Sallust,  76. 
Salvarsan,  153. 
Sand,  104. 
Sanderson,  268. 
San  Remo,  217. 
Sano,  45. 

Santa  Barbara,  217. 
Savage,  50. 
Schaefer,  36. 
Scheer,  28,  52. 
Schiller,  6. 

School    examinations,    injury   caused 
by.  199,  313. 

outdoor,  427. 
Schopenhauer,  275,  396. 
Schrumpf,  215,  218. 
Schultze,  Max,  289. 
Schumann,  148. 
Scotoma,  132,  227. 
Scott,  Walter,  265,  410. 
Seasickness,  135. 

Sense  organs,  impressions  upon,  256. 
Sense,  hypersensitiveness,  266. 

hyposensitiveness,  266. 


450 


Index. 


Senses,  examination  of,  before  enter- 
ing school,  417. 

education  of,  279 

exercising  of,  274,  277. 

oversensitiveness  of,  275. 
Sexual  characters,  secondary,  18. 
Sexual  organs,  16,  20. 

influence  upon  mentality,  21,  97. 
maturity,  83. 

impulses  influencing  the,  84. 
suppressed,  92. 

differences,  84,  97. 
Shakespeare,  85,  195,  443. 
Silberhuber,  27. 
Silvestri,  56. 
Sleepiness,  125. 
Sleeping  remedies,  129. 

sickness,  126,  156. 
Sleeplessness,  125. 
Slowzofif,  54. 
Smoking,  230. 
Sneezing  powder,  135,  211. 
Snufling  powder,  41,  44,  47,  210. 
Spalanzani,  65. 
Spencer,  Herbert,  291. 
Spielmann,  27 . 
Spinoza,  87,  193,  395,  442. 
Stenson,  11. 
Stephenson,  441. 
Stephanowska,  -249. 
Stepanof¥,  27. 
St.  Moritz,  217. 
Strohmayer,  379. 
Sunshine,  183,  212. 
Sun  treatment,  216,  221. 
Sven  Hedin,  195. 
Swammerdam,  403,  440. 
Sweat-bath,  224. 
Swedenborg,  194,  247. 
Syphilis,  113,  147,  191. 

Tabes,  138,  155. 
Tachycardia,  31. 
Taine,  309. 
Tanzi,  289. 
Taste,  good,  258. 
Tatar  mountains,  223. 
Tatra-Fuered,  217. 
Tatra-Lomnitz,  217. 


Tea,  7,  228. 

Teaching,  success  of,  341. 
Tegner,  444. 
Textbooks,  use  of,  327. 

writing  of,  344. 
Thinking,  seat  of,  242. 

rational,  256. 
Thyroid  gland,  11,  22,   129,  170,  174, 
179,  213,  277,  387. 

inactivity  of,  24. 

removal  of,  28. 

extract  of,  142,  159,  166,  215. 

treatment,  237. 
Tissot,  2. 
Tizian,  72. 
Tizzoni,  28. 
Tobacco,  193. 
Torri,  37. 
Tossati,  56. 
Trachewsky,  54. 
Travelling,    as    exercise    for    senses, 

281. 
Trousseau,  310. 
Trypanosomiasis,  157. 
Tuberculosis,  221. 
Twain,  Mark,  345. 
Tyge  Brahe,  407. 
Tyrol,  217. 

Uric  acid,  as  cause   of  mental  dull- 
ness, 15. 
Uremic  attack,  34. 

Van  Gehuchten,  342. 
Van  Valsem,  246. 
Velasquez,  99. 
Venesection,  134. 
Verworn,  289. 

Vibratory  massage  of  the  nose,  42, 
136. 
of  the  pharynx,  136. 
Vieussens,  39,  41. 
Virtue,  98. 
Volta,  200. 
Voltaire,  47,  282. 

Wagner,  Richard,  282. 
Wagner,  Rudolph,  37,  245. 
Wallis,  57. 


Index. 


451 


Wassermann  reaction,  106,  148. 
Watt,  James,  300,  393,  397,  409. 
Weber,  226,  344. 
Whitwell,  28. 
Will-power,  322. 
Winkler,  243. 
Winslow,  4,  305,  310. 
Witzel,  375. 
Wolf,  248. 


Women,  in  art  and  science,  99. 
rational  education  of,  103. 

Young,  Thomas,  300. 

Zarniko,  39. 
Ziegler,  249,  287,  289. 
Ziehen,  143,  243,  419. 
Zuntz,  214. 


Other  Publications  of  F.  A.   Davis    Company ,    Philadelphia 


Old   Age   Deferred 

THE  CAUSES  OF  OLD  AGE  AND  ITS  POSTPONEMENT  BY 
HYGIENIC  AND  THERAPEUTIC  MEASURES. 

BY 

ARNOLD   LORAND,  M.D. 

Carlsbad,  Czecho-Slovakia. 

Royal  Octavo.     480  Pages.     Attractively  Bound  in  Extra  Cloth, 
Burnished  Top.     Price,  $3.00,  net. 

NEW  EDITION 

With  the  Addition  of  an  Important  New  Chapter  on  Premature  Old 

Looks  :    Their  Prevention  and  Treatment . 

DR.  LORAND  has  taken  into  consideration  not  the  faddists, 
but  the  great  physiologists  and  clinicians  whose  writings 
are  based  upon  sound  premises,  extensive  research,  and 
vast  experience. 

The  author  discusses  the  agencies  vv^hich  govern  the  nutri- 
tion of  our  bodies.  Those  which  govern  the  condition  of  the 
nervous  system  and  mentality.  The  influence  of  the  various 
glands  upon  vitality  and  long  life.  The  causation  and  rational 
prevention  of  premature  old  age,  and  the  treatment  of  old  age. 
The  proper  hygienic  measures  to  be  followed  for  thei  improve- 
ment of  the  functions  of  the  body.  Personal  hygiene  in  all  its 
phases  from  infancy  on  through  youth,  middle  life  and  maturity. 
Some  of  the  topics  discussed  are: — 

"It  is  quite  within  the  bounds  of  possibility,  as  we  shall  en- 
deavor to  demonstrate  herein,  to  prolong  our  term  of  youthful- 
ness  by  ten  or  twenty  years.  In  other  words  we  need  no  longer 
grow  old  at  forty  or  fifty;  we  may  live  to  the  age  of  ninety  or  one 
hundred  years,  instead  of  dying  at  sixty  or  seventy.  All  this 
can  be  brought  about  by  the  observance  of  certain  hygienic 
measures,  and  by  improving  the  functions  of  a  certain  few  of  the 
glandular  structures  in  our  body."     {From  the  author's  preface.) 

This  work  has  now  been  published  in  nine  languages,  large 
editions  being  necessary  to  supply  the  demand  in  each  language. 

British  Medical  Journal  (London,  England). 

In  his  book  on  "OLD  AGE  DEFERRED."  Dr.  Lorand  has  put  together  a  large 
amount  of  learning  and  has  dealt  with  an  immense  number  of  subiects. 


Other  Publications   of  F.   A.    Davis  Company,   Philadelphia 

Health  and  Longevity  Through 
Rational  Diet 

PRACTICAL  HINTS  IN  REGARD  TO  FOOD  AND  THE  USEFULNESS 
OR  THE    HARMFUL  EFFECTS   OF    THE   VARIOUS 
ARTICLES   OF   DIET. 

BY 

DR.    ARNOLD    LORAND 

Carlsbad,  Czecho-Slovakia, 

Translated  from  the  Original  German  Edition,  with  an  Introduction  by 
Victor  C.  Vaughan,  M.D.,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.  Being  a,  complete  code  of 
instructions  as  to  the  different  foods  and  how  they  can  be  best  employed. 
Royal  Octavo.  425  pages.  Handsomely  Bound  in  Cloth  (uniform  with 
"Old  Age  Deferred").    $3.00,  net. 

SYNOPSIS   OF    CONTENTS: 

Introduction,  with  remarks  upon  the  importance  of  the  Appetite  and 
the  Object  of  the  Processes  of  Nourishment. 

I.  The  Influence  of  Food  Upon  Man. 

II.  The  Fundamental  Laws  of  Rational  Feeding. 

III.  The  Injurious  Modes  of  Feeding. 

IV.  The  Good  and  Evil  Effects  of  Various  Food  Substances. 

Meat  Diet.     Fish  Diet.     Milk  Diet.     Cereals.     Green  Vege- 
tables.    Fruit  Diet.     Beverages. 

V.  Vegetarianism  and  its  Advantages  and  Disadvantages.     Hints  for 

the  Prevention  of  the  Latter. 

VI.  The  Practical  Advantages  of  Rational  Feeding.     Useful  Hints. 

VII.  Hints  for  Those  Obliged  to  Take  their  Meals  in  Restaurants. 

The  Injurious  Effects  of  the  "Table  d'Hote"  Diet. 

VIII.  The  Increased  Activity  of  Certain  Functions  Brought  About 

by  Food. 

IX.  The  Increased  Muscular  Power  Resulting  from  a  Suitable  Diet. 

X.  Conclusion.     The   Relationship    of   Food   to    Old  Age   and   Lon- 

gevity.    Glossar^^     List  of  Diseases.     Index. 

MANY  PEOPLE  naturally  sidestep  books  on  diet  because  they 
expect  to  be  warned  against  their  pet  dietar}'  follies.  This  is 
not  the  Lorand  way.  In  a  most  entertaining  manner  Dr. 
Lorand  explains  to  the  reader  the  advantages,  disadvantages  and 
nutritive  values  of  different  foods  so  clearly  that  a  person  of  ordinary 
intelligence  can  exercise  good  judgment.  Obviously,  no  person  of 
reasonable  common  sense  deliberately  follows  the  path  of  error  in 
diet;  if  he  has  the  facts  he  can  go  ahead  and  choose  for  himself;  Dr. 
Lorand's  book  provides  the  facts. 

JouRNAi,  OF  THE  AMERICAN  Medicai,  ASSOCIATION  (Chicago,  111.). 

Methods  of  cooking:  are  described  and  interesting  remarks  are  made  as  to  the  size 
and  distribution  of  the  ill  effects  arising  from  various  special  and  one-sided  diets.  It  is  fuU 
of  valuable  tints  from  which  all  can  profit.  It  may  be  recommended  to  the  layman  as  weU 
as  to  the  practitioner. 


Other  Publications  of  F.   A.   Davis  Company ,  Philadelphia 

THE  LEADING   ACKNOWLEDGED   AUTHORITY  ON    CHARACTER 
READING   BY   FACE   AND   FORM   IS 

Stanton's 

Encyclopaedia  of  Face  and 

Form  Reading 


Illustrated  with   380  Engravings   in   the  Text.     Royal   Octavo.      Over   1200 
Pages.     Price,  $7.00  net,  in  three-quarter  leather  binding. 


QTANTON'S  ENCYCLOPEDIA  shows  the  threefold  rela- 
^  tion  of  the  face,  internal  organs,  and  mind,  and  the  influence 
of  these  org-ans  upon  the  capacity,  vigor,  and  tendencies  of 
the  thoughts  and  actions.  Each  of  the  following  dififerent  sys- 
tems is  carefully  and  thoroughly  explained: — 

The  Digestive  System,  The  Muscular  System,  The  Respira- 
tory System,  The  Circulatory  System,  The  Bony  System,  The 
Reproductive  System,  with  the  connection  which  exists  between 
them  and  the  face,  and  how, and  why  each  feature  of  the  face 
is  shaped,  and  shows  the  individual's  character  and  thoughts 

The  study  of  Form  and  Expression  is  the  basis  of  health  and 
self-confidence.  By  its  careful  study  the  positive  faculties  and 
qualities  which  make  for  success  can  be  developed.  You  can 
learn  how  to  do  things  because  you  are  able  to  make  note  of 
weaknesses,  and  the  action  of  the  functions  of  the  different 
organs  of  the  body  can  be  so  properly  developed  as  to  form  new 
habits,  new  ideas,  broaden  the  character — intellectually  and 
physically — so  thoroughly  that  you  may  secure  the  proper  action 
of  the  functions  and  overcome  all  weakness  and  liability  to  sick- 
ness or  depression  of  the  mind, 


Other  Publications  of  F.  A.   Davis    Company ,  Philadelphia 


Health  and  Beauty 


BY 

JOHN  V.  SHOEMAKER,  M.D.,  LL.D. 

Royal  Octavo.    475  pages.    Extra  Cloth,    Bevelled  Boards.    Price,  $1.50,  net. 

^  I  ^HIS  w^ork  is  based  upon  an  enormous  experience  not  only  as 
■■■        a  specialist  in  skin  diseases,  but  as  a  physician  engaged  in 
general  practice.     The  contents  of  the  book  are  therefore 
authentic  and  founded  upon  actual  knowledge  rather  than  theory. 

There  may  be  good  health  vv^ithout  good  looks,  but  seldom  good 
looks  without  good  health.  This  treatise  tells  you  how  these  two 
highly  desirable  conditions  may  be  co-existent.  There  is  a  place  in 
every  family  library  for  a  book  of  this  kind. 

SYNOPSIS    OF    CONTENTS: 

I.  The  Skin  and  Complexion. 

II.  The  Appendages  of  the  Skin. 

III.  The  Usefulness  of  the  Skin  and  of  the  Hair. 

IV.  The  Complexion. 

V.  The  Elements  of  Beauty  and  Grace. 

VI.  World  Influence  of  Woman's  Charms. 

VII.  Expression,  Sexual  Attraction,  Wedlock. 

VIII.  How  to  Cultivate  and  Preserve  a  Good  Complexion. 

IX.  The  Bath. 

X.  Digestion  and  Indigestion. 

XI.  Education  of  the  Body. 

XII.  Cultivation  of  the  Mind. 

XIII.  Clothing  and  Dress. 

XIV.  The  Influence  of  Climate  Upon  Health. 

XV.  Ventilation. 

XVI.  Disfigurement  from  Disease,  with  Some  Treatment  of  it. 

XVII.  Eruptive  Fevers. 

XVIII.  The  Hair,  its  Fashions  and  its  Diseases. 

XIX.  The  Nails  and  Their  Diseases. 

XX.  Cosmetic  Preparations.     Index. 


Other  Publications    of  F.   A.   Davis    Company.    Philadelphia 
SHORT  TALKS  ON 

Personal  and  Community  Health 

By  LOUIS  LEHRFELD,  A.M.,  M.D., 

Agent  for  the  Prevention  of  Disease,  Department  of  Public  Health  and 
Charities,   Philadelphia. 

With  an  Introduction  by 

WILMER  KRUSEN,  M.D.,  LL.D., 

Director  (1916-1919),   Department  of  Public  Health  and   Charities, 
Philadelphia,   Penna. 

Crown  Octavo,     Nearly  300  pages.     Extra  Cloth,  $2.00,  net. 

PREPARED  primarily  to  instruct  the  school  pupil,  the  college  student,  and  the 
social  welfare  worker  in  the  elements  of  personal  and  public  health  these 
"Short  Talks"  will  be  found  eminently  practical  and  replete  with  common  sense 
throughout. 

Some  of  the  Topics  Discussed  : 

Part  I.— Preventable  Diseases  and  How  to  Avoid  Them.  Part  II.— Subjects  for  Spring 
and  Summer.  Part  III.— Subjects  for  the  Holidays.  Part  IV.— Miscellaneous  Topics: 
The  Preservation  of  National  Health  a  Duty — The  Prevention  of  Physical  Deformities- 
Home  Sanitation — Preventive  Inoculation — Disease  Transmitted  by  Domestic  Animals — 
Sewage  and  Refuse  Disposal,  etc.  Part  V.— Foods  and  Water:  Handling  of  Food— Care 
of  Milk  in  the  Home — What  the  Public  Should  Know  About  Milk — Pure  Water — Meat 
and  Cattle  Inspection,  etc.  Part  VI.— Talks  About  Infants  and  Children.  Part  VII.— 
First  Aid  to  the  Injured. 

Safeguarding  the  Special  Senses 

GENERAL  ADVICE  REGARDING  THE   USE  AND   PRESERVATION 
OF  THE  EYES.  EARS,  NOSE  AND  THROAT, 

BY 

HENRY  O.  REIK,  M.D. 

Illustrated  with  4  Full-page  Plates,  2  in  Colors.     12mo.     123  pages. 
Attractively  Bound  in  Cloth,  75  cents,  net. 

ANY  defect  in  the  sight,  hearing,  or  organs  of  speech  tremen- 
dously reduces  a  person's  efficiency.  A  neglected  child  there- 
fore may  reasonably  be  expected  to  later  on  blame  the 
parents  who  failed  in  their  duty.  Adults  who  are  careless  about 
colds  affecting  the  ears,  or  who  defer  the  use  of  glasses  when 
necessary,  may  rightly  expect  the  onset  of  defective  hearing  or 
cataract  in  their  later  years. 

It  is  said  that  probably  50  per  cent,  of  the  practice  of  specialists 
is  made  up  of  attempts  to  remedy  the  results  of  these  forms  of 
neglect. 

The  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal. 

Such  a  book  as  this  should  find  an  especially  useful  place  among  the  laity  as  well  as  in 
the  profession.  In  fact,  the  simplicity  of  style  is  such  that  persons  of  small  medical  training 
would  find  It  entirely  understandable. 


Other  Publications   of  F.  A.   Davis  Company,  Philadelphia 


Confessions  of  a  Neurasthenic 

BY 

WILLIAM  TAYLOR  MARKS,  M.D. 
Eight  Illustrations.    116  pages.    Bound  in  Handsome  Cloth.    Price,  $1.00. 

CONFESSIONS  OF  A  NEURASTHENIC  is  designed  to  show 
the  mental  absurdities  of  that  extremely  cautious  and  anxious 
individual  who  wishes  under  any  and  all  circumstances  to  take 
extraordinary  good  care  of  himself. 

The  hero  of  this  sketch  has  always  found  real,  continuous  effort 
too  severe  a  tax  upon  his  health.  Therefore^  he  shifts  from  one 
occupation  to  another.  His  various  adventures  in  search  of  a  calling 
at  once  congenial  and  devoid  of  mental  and  physical  strain  are  not 
only  very  amusing  to  read,  but  point  a  most  useful  moral. 


The  Practical  Care  of  the  Baby 
And  Young  Child 

BY 

THERON  WENDELL  KILMER,  M.D. 

Lecturer  on  Pediatrics  in  New  York  Polyclinic  Medical  School  and  Hospital', 

Attending  Pediatrist,  St.  Bartholomew's  Clinic ;  Consulting  Pediatrist, 

Home  of  St.  Giles,  Garden  City,  New  York,  etc. 

With  68  Illustrations.     Second  Revised  Edition.     158  pages. 
12mo.    Cloth,  $1.00,  net. 

THE  remarkable  reduction  in  the  death  rate  among  infants  in 
New  York  City  is  the  answer  to  what  physicians  there  have 
been  doing  in  recent  years.  They  have  given  extraordinary 
attention  to  the  care  of  children.  Dr.  Theron  W.  Kilmer  has  been 
closely  identified  in  this  good  work  and  in  compiling  his  book  for 
the  public,  he  was  guided  not  only  by  an  extensive  personal  experi- 
ence, but  by  a  thorough  knowledge  of  what  numerous  other  special- 
ists in  the  Care  of  the  Infant  and  Young  Child  have  been  doing. 

Kilmer's  "Care  of  the  Baby"  is  a  thoroughly  safe  counsellor  in 
the  family,  the  clear  text  and  numerous  fine  illustrations  fulfilling 
every  requirement    ' 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 

This  book  is  due  on  the  date  indicated  below,  or  at  the 
expiration  of  a  definite  period  after  the  date  of  borrowing, 
as  provided  by  the  rules  of  the  Library  or  by  special  ar- 
rangement with  the  Librarian  in  charge. 

DATE  BORROWED 

DATE  DUE 

DATE  BORROWED 

DATE  DUE 

) 

' 

C2B(I  l4O)M10O 

RA790  L88 

Lorand 

Building  human  intelligence. 


